Frontispiece. 


ALLYN   AND   BACON'S  SERIES   OF   SCHOOL   HISTORIES 


A  HISTORY  OF 


THE    UNITED    STATES 


BY 


CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS 

\\ 

LATE    PRESIDENT   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  WISCONSIN 
AND 

WILLIAM   P.   TRENT 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE   IN   COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


REVISED  EDITION 


ALLYN    AND    BACON 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ATLANTA  SAN  FRANCISCO 


EL  » 


ALLYN    AND    BACON'S   SERIES   OF    I  Yo 

SCHOOL    HISTORIES 
1 2mo,  cloth,  numerous  maps,  plans,  and  illustrations 


ANCIENT  WORLD.     By  Willis  M.   West,   of   the    University   of 
Minnesota. 

MODERN  WORLD.     By  Willis  M.  West. 

HISTORY  OF   ENGLAND.       By    Charles    M.    Andrews    of   Yale 
University. 

SHORT   HISTORY  OF   ENGLAND.     By  Charles  M.  Andrews. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE.     By  Willis  M.  West. 
'MAN'S  4EARi.Y  PROGRESS.     By  Willis  M.  West. 
'MODERN   PROGRESS.     By  Willis  M.  West. 


COPYRIGHT,    1903,    1909,    1913,   AND    1922, 
BY   WILLIAM    P.   TRENT   AND    BY   JOHN     P.    FISK, 
L.  S.  HANKS,  AND  BURR  W.  JONES,  EXECUTORS 
OF  THE  ESTATE  OF  CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS. 


TAA 


•V^cV>/vc    5  V 

0 


Norfoooli  press 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 

THE  lamented  death  of  President  Adams  entails  on  me  the 
duty  of  writing  the  preface  to  our  joint  work,  —  a  duty  which, 
had  he  lived,  would  naturally  have  fallen  to  him,  since  to  his 
initiative  and  energy  the  volume  owes  its  existence.  Fortu 
nately,  the  entire  manuscript  had  the  benefit  of  his  wisdom 
and  experience  as  teacher  and  investigator,  and  the  proofs 
of  about  half  the  book  passed  under  his  watchful  supervision. 

Five  years  ago,  in  a  letter  to  me  proposing  the  book,  Dr. 
Adams  gave,  among  his  reasons  for  wishing  to  add  to  the 
long  list  of  school  histories  of  the  United  States,  three 
principal  objects :  — 

First,  to  present  fully  and  with  fairness  the  Southern  point 
of  view  in  the  great  controversies  that  long  threatened  to 
divide  the  Union. 

Second,  to  treat  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  the  causes  that 
led  to  it,  impartially  and  with  more  regard  for  British  conten 
tions  than  has  been  usual  among  American  writers. 

Third,  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  West  in  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  Unit'ed  States. 

These  objects  have  been  kept  constantly  in  view.  We  felt, 
moreover,  that  the  development  of  institutions  and  govern 
ment  may  justly  be  considered  of  great  importance,  although 
naturally  lacking  in  picturesqueness,  and  we  have  endeavored 
to  set  in  relief  this  evolutionary  process.  How  far  we  have 
succeeded  in  accomplishing  the  objects  sought  remains  for 
others  to  judge. 

982096 


VI  PREFACE. 

I  cannot  forbear  to  place  on  record  here  my  appreciation 
of  the  fortitude  with  which  Dr.  Adams  bore  his  protracted 
sufferings  and  did  his  work ;  of  his  conscientiousness  in  mat 
ters  of  minutest  detail ;  of  his  fairness  and  sympathy  toward 
those  with  whom  he  did  not  agree,  and  of  the  unfailing  cour 
tesy  that  marked  every  line  of  his  correspondence. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  highly  competent  services 
of  Miss  May  Langdon  White  of  New  York,  whom  Dr.  Adams 
selected  to  assist  in  the  revision  of  the  work. 


W.  P.  TKENT. 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY, 
NEW  YORK,  November,  1902. 


In  bringing  this  volume  up  to  date  care  has  been  exercised 
to  retain  that  fairness  of  treatment  which  was  so  conspicuous 
an  element  in  all  Dr.  Adams'  work. 
January  1,  1922. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

LIST  OF  MAPS    ...........     xvi 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .    xvii 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE      ........         .      xx 

PART   I.  — PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY   AND 
SETTLEMENT,  1492-1765. 

CHAPTER    I. —DISCOVERY. 

RF.CTION 

1-  3.  The  American  Indians   ........  1 

4.    Pre-Columbian  Discoverers 4 

5-13.  Columbus  and  the  Spanish  Discoverers          ....  7 

14-16.  The  French  Explorers    ........  18 

17-18.    The  English  Explorers 20 

19-20.    Summary  of  Results .'        .  22 

References 23 

CHAPTER   II. —THE    FIRST    PLANTATIONS   AND 
COLONIES,   1607-1630. 

21-28.    The  Settlement  of  Virginia 24 

29-30.    The  Settlement  of  New  York         .         .         .         .         .         .       29 

31-36.    The  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth 31 

37-38.    The  Settlement  of  Massachusetts 34 

References -  .         .36 

CHAPTER    III.  —  SPREAD  OF  PLANTATIONS,   1630-1689. 

39-41.    The  Settlement  and  Growth  of  Maryland       ....      37 

42-45.    Development  of  Virginia .40 

46-52.    Development  of  New  England        ......       42 

53-60.    The  New  England  Confederacy 46 

61-71.    Development  of  the  Middle  Colonies      .        .        .        .         .       51 
72-76.    The  Southern  Colonies  .        .        .        .'.'.,        .57 

References      . .69 

vii 


Viii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV.— THE  COUNTRY  AT  THE  END  OF 
THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

SECTION  PAG» 

77-  78.    General  Conditions     .        .        .        .        .        .        .  .  60 

79-  84.    Characteristics  of  New  England          .        .        ...  .  61 

85-  86.    Characteristics  of  the  Middlfe  Colonies        .        .  65 

87-  90.    Characteristics  of  the  Southern  Colonies    .        .        .  .  66 

References .  /.  68 

CHAPTER   V.  —  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   COLONIES, 
1690-1765. 

91-  94.   Colonial  Disputes 69 

95-97.    Virginia  and  Georgia .         ....        ...        .        .       71 

98-100.    French  Discoveries  and  Claims  .         ,        .        .        .         .73 

101-116.    Wars  with  the  French ,75 

References          .........      86 

PART   II.  — PERIOD   OF   THE   REVOLUTION, 

1765-1789. 

CHAPTER  VI.  — CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION, 

117-120.  General  Causes 87 

121-126.  The  Question  of  Taxation 91 

127-132.  The  Resistance  of  the  Colonies 93 

133-135.  The  Tax  on  Tea .98 

136-139.  New  Legislation  and  Opposition 100 

140-143.  The  Crisis 103 

References .  106 

CHAPTER  VII.— THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1775  AND  1776. 

144-147.  Early  Movements 107 

148-152.  Washington  in  Command  .         .         .         .  .         .110 

153-158.  The  War  in  New  York 114 

159-160.  General  Condition  of  the  Country      .  ...     118 

161-162.  Failure  of  British  Expeditions    .         .         .         .        .         .     119 

163-165.  The  Declaration  of  Independence       .        .        .        ,        .121 

166-176.  The  War  in  New  Jersey     .        .        ....        .126 

CHAPTER   VIII. —THE   CAMPAIGN  OF  1777. 
177-187.   The  Struggle  for  the  Center       .,,.,.    135 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. —THE  FRENCH   ALLIANCE   AND  THE 

CAMPAIGNS  OF   1778  AND  1779. 

SECTION  PAGB 

188-193.   A  Winter  of  Discouragement     .       V  .        .        .  .     144 

194-198.    Prospects  Brighten     .         .        .        .  .        .        .  .     149 

199-207.   Conditions  West  of  the  Alleghanies   .  .        .        .  .     152 

208-209.   The  Conquest  of  the  Northwest          .'  ...  .     158 

210-212.   The  Victories  of  PaulJones  .  .159 


CHAPTER  X.  — THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1780  AND   1781. 

213-214.  The  War  in  the  South        .        ...        .        .        *  .     162 

216-220.  The  Treason  of  Benedict  Arnold .164 

221-223.  Causes  of  Discouragement          '.     •    .>'.;:.        .  .     167 

224-228.  American  Successes  in  the  South        ....  .     168 

229-237.  The  Close  of  the  War         .        .        ,    ,    .        .        .  .172 

CHAPTER  XL  — THE   ARTICLES  OF   CONFEDERATION 
AND   THE   CONSTITUTION. 

238-243.   Difficulties  of  Confederation       ...        .,       .       ...        .     178 

244-256.    The  Constitution         .  •     .        .        .        .        .        .        .     181 

References  .  190 


PART   III.  — THE   ORGANIZATION   OF 
POLITICAL   PARTIES,   1789-1825. 

CHAPTER  XII.  — THE   COUNTRY  AT  THE   CLOSE  OF 
THE  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

257-262.    General  Conditions     ........     191 

263-264.    Spirit  of  the  People    .         .     -    ,k  •      .        ,       ....     194 

References.        .        .        .  '     .        .       ,       .        .        .     196 

CHAPTER  XIII.— THE   ADMINISTRATIONS  OF 
WASHINGTON,    1789-1797. 

265-268.   Early  Legislation  and  Parties     .        .        .        .        ;        .    196 

269-274.   Difficulties  of  Administration     .         *        .        .        .        .     200 

References  .  .204 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   XIV. —THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF  JOHN 
ADAMS,    1797-1801. 

SECTION  PAGE 

276-281.    A  Period  of  Dissensions      .        .        .      ...        .        .        .205 

References.        .        .        .        .        •        .        ..    •  #        .    210 

CHAPTER   XV.  — THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF 
JEFFERSON,    1801-1809. 

282-284.   Jeffersonian  Policy     .        .        .        ...  .  .211 

285-295.    Measures  and  Events          ...        .        .        .  .  .214 

296-297.    Character  of  Jefferson's  Statesmanship      .        .  .  .222 

References.         .        .        ...        .        .  .  .     224 

CHAPTER   XVI.  — THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF 
MADISON,    1809-1817. 

298-303.  Outbreak  of  War        .        .        .        .        .        .        .    "    .     225 

304-305.   Exploits  of  the  Navy 230 

306-310.  Reverses  and  Successes       .        .         .        .        .        .         .234 

311-312.   End  of  the  War 238 

313-315.  The  Disaffection  of  New  England        ....        .         .240 

316-319.  Consequences  of  the  War  .         .         .         .        '.''•'".         .     242 

References 244 

CHAPTER   XVII. —THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF 
MONROE,    1817-1825. 

320-322.   Character  of  the  Period .245 

323-326.    Diplomatic  Achievements 247 

327-331.    Slavery  comes  to  the  Front         .        .        .        .        .        .     250 

332-334.   Factional  Politics       .        .        .         .        .  *    .        .        .     254 

References 256 

PART   IV.  — SPREAD   OF   DEMOCRACY   AND 
EXTENSION   OF   TERRITORY,   1825-1850. 

CHAPTER   XVIII.— THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF  JOHN 
QUINCY   ADAMS,  1825-1829. 

335-339.   Failures  of  the  Administration   .        .        .....     257 

340-342.   The  Tariff  Question    .        ,        .        ...      ;.        •        •    260 

References .....  262 


CONTENTS.  XI 


CHAPTER   XIX.  — THE  JACKSONIAN   EPOCH,    1829-1837. 

SECTION  PAGF, 

343-345.    Political  Conditions    . 263 

346-350.    Progress  of  the  Nation         .         .         .    •    .         .~       .         .265 

CHAPTER    XX.— JACKSON'S   FIRST   ADMINISTRATION, 

1829-1833. 

351-354.    A  Popular  Autocrat   .         ....        .        .         .     271 

355-356.    The  Debate  over  the  Nature  of  the  Constitution        .         .     274 
357-358.    The  Tariff  and  Nullification        .  .        .        .        .278 

References ..........     280 

CHAPTER   XXI. —JACKSON'S   SECOND    ADMINISTRA 
TION,    1833-1837. 

359-360.    The  Abolitionists         .         .         ....         .         .281 

361-367.    Financial  Disturbances       .       U         .'      .         .       ..         .     283 
References  .  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .287 

CHAPTER    XXII. —  THE    ADMINISTRATIONS    OF    VAN 
BUREN  AND  OF  HARRISON  AND  TYLER,  1837-1845. 

368-371.    A  Period  of  Confusion 288 

372-373.    The  Embarrassments  of  the  Whigs  ,     290 

374-376.    Texas  and  Oregon       .        ....'..        .293 

References ..........     295 

CHAPTER   XXIII.— THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK, 

1845-1849. 

377-379.    The  Opening  of  the  Mexican  War 296 

380-389.    The  Conduct  and  Results  of  the  War         .        .        .        .299 
References ..........     304 

PART  V.  — THE   EVE   OF   THE   CIVIL  WAK, 
1850-1861. 

CHAPTER  XXIV.  — THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  TAYLOR 
AND   FILLMORE,    1849-1853. 

390-394.    The  Question  of  California          ....        .         .     305 

395-400.    The  Compromise  of  1850    .        .....         .         .308 

401-404.    International  and  Domestic  Affairs    .  ,     313 


xii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXV.— THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PIERCE, 

1853-1857. 

SECTION  PAGE 

405-410.   The  Confusion  of  Parties    .        «        •       >••..       ••.      ...  •    317 

411-415.    Kansas-Nebraska  Legislation      .        .        ...  .320 

416-417.    The  Republican  Party        .        .        ......    *        .        ,  ;  .     323 

CHAPTER   XXVI. —THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF 
BUCHANAN,    1857-1861. 

418-422.    The  Supreme  Court  and  Slavery         ...        .  .     326 

423-427.   Kansas  and  Utah         .         .         .        ....  .329 

428-431.    The  Great  Debates     .         .         ....        .  .     332 

432-434.   John  Brown  and  Public  Opinion         .  '•'."•'     .         .  .     336 

435-439.    The  Presidential  Campaign  of  1860    .         .         .        .  .     339 

440-446.    Secession  of  the  South        .        .        ...        .  .342 

447-449.    The  Country  in  1860-1861  .        .        .        .        ...     348 

References .                                                                      .  .     350 


PART   VI.  — THE   CIVIL   WAR   AND   RECON 
STRUCTION,   1861-1869. 

CHAPTER   XXVII. —THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE 
CIVIL   WAR. 

450-453.   Opening  of  Hostilities         .        .        .        ...  .353 

454-458.    Military  and  Financial  Strength  of  the  Combatants  .  .     357 

459-461.   Description  of  the  Seat  of  War  .        .        .        .        .  .     360 

462-465.    Domestic  and  Foreign  Complications  ,         .  .    362 

466-471.    Military  Movements  of  1861        .        .        .        ,        .  .     365 

472-474.    International  Difficulties     .        .        .        .        ...  .369 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. —THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 

475-483.    The  War  in  the  West          .        .  .        .        .  .372 

484-489.    The  Work  of  the  Navy        .        .        ;        .         .         .  .     381 

490-498.    The  War  in  the  East .        ..        .  .         .        .  •     387 

499-502.    Public  Feeling  in  the  North  and  Great  Britain  .        .  .     394 

503-506.   The  War  in  the  East  continued  .        .        .        .    ,     .  .397 

507-513.    Domestic  and  Foreign  Effects  of  the  Campaigns  of  1862  .     402 

References.        .        .        *        .        •        •        •        •  •     406 


CONTENTS.  xiii 
CHAPTER   XXIX.— THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863. 

SECTION  PAGE 

514-517.    Vicksburg  .         .        .      *V        .'"   V      '.        .        .  .     408 

518-522.    The  Chattanooga  Campaign        .   .     .-     .        .        ••  .     411 

523-525.   The  Eastern  Campaigns      .         .      >. :       .        .        „•  .     414 

526-529.   Embarrassment  of  the  Federal  Government       ...  .    419 

References.      •  . •..-::-*•- .  •    .       ;;        .        .         .      .,>  .     421 

CHAPTER  XXX. —THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF   1864. 

530-533.    Grant  and  Lee  in  Virginia .        .        .        .        i        .  .422 

534-538.    Sherman's  Campaigns        -.      •        v.- .    ••,•••••       *  .426 

539-541.    Naval  Victories  .         .        ..        ...        .         .  .     430 

542-546.    Political  Affairs  .        .         .        .        .        .         .        .  .432 

References.         .        .         i       '••        .      •.        .        .  -.     435 

CHAPTER   XXXI.— END   OF   THE    WAR,    1865. 

547-551.   Movements  of  Sherman  and  Grant     .        .       ;.        ,  .     436 

552-554.    The  Death  of  President  Lincoln         >        •        •        •  .440 

555-561.    The  Magnitude  of  the  War 441 

References.         .        .        .    '    .        .        .        .  .     445 

CHAPTER   XXXII;— THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF 
JOHNSON:    RECONSTRUCTION,    1865-1869. 

562-573.   Different  Policies  of  Reconstruction  .        .        .        .  .     446 

574-576.   Effects  of  Reconstruction    .     •..,...,.     452 

577-580.   Johnson  and  Congress        .  '              .,.,-,                 •  •     454 

References .  .....     457 


PART   VII.  — PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL 
DEVELOPMENT,   1869-1902. 

CHAPTER   XXXIII. —THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF 
GRANT,    1869-1877. 

581-588.    Grant's  First  Administration,  1869-1873    ..  .      .  .        .  458 

589-595.    Grant's  Second  Administration,  1873-1877  ,        .        .  463 

696-599.    Party  Politics      .         ."....        ,'      .  •-  .        ..         .  468 

References .  ...  472 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.— THE  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   HAYES 
AND   OF   GARFIELD  AND   ARTHUR,   1877-1885. 

SECTION  PAGE 

600-603.  Industrial  Problems    .        .        .        .       ..'.,;•  .  .  .    473 

604-605.  Financial  Problems     .        .        .        .        .  .  .475 

606-609.  Political  Affairs .        .        *.         .    •     ,        .  .  »    .    .     476 

610-613.  Chief  Features  of  Arthur's  Administration  .  .  .     480 

614-617.  Political  Events  ...         .         .         .  ...  .  .     4813 

618-619.  The  Presidential  Campaign  of  1884    .        .  .  .  .485 

References .  .  .487 

CHAPTER   XXXV.  — FIRST  ADMINISTRATION   OF 
CLEVELAND,    1885-1889. 

620-62S.    Important  Measures  and  Reforms       .        .        ,         .        .     488 

624-628.    Industrial  and  Financial  Disturbances        ....     491 

References .         .         .        .         .  .        .         .         .     494 

CHAPTER   XXXVI. —THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF 
BENJAMIN    HARRISON,    1889-1893. 

629-638.    Domestic  Events  and  Measures  .         ...         .        .     495 

639-641.    Foreign  Affairs  .         .         .         „         .         .         .         .         .500 

642-643.    Political  Affairs 502 

CHAPTER   XXXVII. —SECOND   ADMINISTRATION   OF 
CLEVELAND,    1893-1897. 

644-649.    Financial  Legislation.'       .         .....        .504 

650-651.    Foreign  Affairs 507 

652-655.   Domestic  Events .        .510 

References ..........     513 

CHAPTER    XXXVIII. —THE    ADMINISTRATIONS   OF 
McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909. 

656-657.  The  Beginning  of  McKinley's  Administration    .         .         .     514 

658-670.  The  War  with  Spain  .         .         ...        .         .         .515 

671-676.    Consequences  of  the  War 524 

677-681.  The  Close  of  McKinley's  First  Administration  .     •    .         .     527 

682-683.  McKinley's  Second  Administration    .         .         .                  .531 

684-700.  Roosevelt's  Administration         .        .        .        .        .         .     532 


CONTENTS.  XV 


CHAPTER   XXXIX. —THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF   TAFT,   AND 
THE    PROGRESSIVE    MOVEMENT,    1909-1913. 

SECTION  PAGE 

701-706.     The  Tariff  and  the  Progressive  Movement        .         .        .     549 
707-710.     The  Political  Situation,  1910-1912  .        .        .         .554 


CHAPTER  XL. —  THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  WILSON,  1913-1921. 

711-714.  Foreign  Problems      .  .  .....  .-  .     558 

715-724.  The  Great  War          .  .  .'       .         .         .  .  .     560 

725.  The  Peace  Treaty      .  .  .         .         .        .  .  .567 

726-727.  The  Election  of  1920  .  .  .568 


CHAPTER   XLL  — THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    HARDING, 

1921- 

728-730.     The  Beginning  of  Harding's  Administration     .         .         .     570 


APPENDIX. 

4.     Declaration  of  Independence      .......  1 

B.  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America     ....  6 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution 17 

C.  List  of  Presidents  and  Vice  Presidents,  with  their  Terms  of 

Office .         .  23 

INDEX  25 


MAPS. 


1.  Distribution  of  the  Barbarous  Tribes  East  of  the  Mississippi. 

(Colored)         .        .        .     ...        ,        ,        ..        .       facing 

2.  French  Explorations  and  Settlements.     ( Colored)     .       facing 

3.  Central  North  America  at  the  Beginning  of  the  French  and 

Indian  War,  1755.     (Colored)        .        .  .       facing 

4.  The  British  Colonies  in  1764.     (Colored)  .        .        .       facing 

5.  Boston  and  Environs,  1775          .        .        .        .        .        .     .  . 

6.  Boston  and  Environs,  1776          .        .        .        .        .•'"••-' 

7.  Retreat  across  New  Jersey  .        .        .        »        ...        .      .  . 

8.  The  Middle  Atlantic  States          .        ...        .  •.        » 

9.  Operations  irt  the  South,  1780-1781     .        .        .         .        . 

10.  Operations  at  Yorktown      .        .        .        .        .        .        , 

11.  Land  Claims  of  the  Thirteen  Original  States  in  1783.     (  Colored) 

12.  The  Northwest  Territory  in  1787 

13.  United  States  in  1789.     (Colored) 

14.  The  Areas  of  Freedom  and  Slavery  in  1790. 

15.  United  States  in  1800.     (Colored) 

16.  The  Louisiana  Purchase      .        . 

17.  United  States  Growth  from  1800  to  1853. 

18.  Operations  in  Canada,  1812-1814 

19.  Operations  in  the  East,  1814 

20.  Operations  around  Washington  in  1814 

21.  Southwestern  Operations,  1813-1815 

22.  Areas  of  Freedom  and  Slavery  as  established  by  the  Missouri 

Compromise  of  1820.     (Colored)     ...        .       facing 

23.  United  States  in  1825-1830.     (Colored)      .         .         .following 

24.  Territory  claimed  by  Texas  when  admitted  into  the  Union, 

1845.     (Colored') 

25.  Territory  ceded  by  Mexico,  1848  and  1853.     (Colored) 

26.  United  States  —  Acquisition  of  Territory.     (  Colored) 

27.  The  Compromise  of  1850.     (Colored) 

28.  Areas  of  Freedom,  and  Slavery  in  1854. 

29.  United  States  in  1861.     (Colored)      . 

30.  Operations  in  the  West,  1862 

31.  Norfolk,  Hampton  Roads    . 

32.  The  Vicksburg  Campaign    .        .        . 

33.  Operations  in  the  East,  1864        .         , 

34.  Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea 

35.  Colonial  Possessions,  1913.     (Colored) 

36.  United  States,  1913.     (Colored) 

xvi 


(  Colored) 


facing 
facing 
facing 
facing 
facing 
following 


facing 
following 


3 
73 

81 
87 
108 
112 
128 
145 
170 
173 


facing 

179 
189 

i  1790.  (Colored) 
853.  (  Colored) 
14   .    '.  -  . 

facing 
facing 
facing 

facing 

191 
196 
211 
217 
217 
229 
236 
237 
239 

251 
256 

296 
303 
305 
308 
321 
348 
376 
383 
410 
423 
429 
524 
548 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


George  Washington  Frontispiece 
Specimen  of  Indian  Pottery  .  2 
Inscription  Rock,  New  Mexico  2 
Diego  de  Landa's  Maya  Al 
phabet  ....  3 
Long  House  of  Iroquois  .  3 
Cliff  Dwellings  on  the  Rio 

Mancos  ...  .  .  4 
North  Pueblo  of  Taos  .  .  5 
Specimen  of  Saga  Manuscript  5 
The  Dighton  Rock  in  Massa 
chusetts  ....  6 
Old  Mill  at  Newport  .  .  6 
Columbus  ....  7 
Toscanelli's  Map  ...  8 
Ships  of  the  Time  of  Columbus  1 0 
Sebastian  Cabot  .  .  .12 
Americus  Vespucius  .  .  13 
Balboa  .  .  ...  14 
Magellan  .  .  .  .15 
Ponce  de  Leon  ...  16 
De  Soto .  .  .  .  .17 
Jacques  Cartier  .  .  .18 
Champlain  .  .  .  .19 
Sir  Francis  Drake .  .  .  20 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  .  .  21 
Ruins  of  the  Old  Church  at 

Jamestown  ...  25 
John  Smith  ...  .26 
Pocahontas  .  .  .  .  27 
Henry  Hudson  .  .  .  30 
New  Amsterdam  .  .  .30 
Miles  Standish  .  33 


PAGE 

Jphn  Endicott  .  .  .  34 
John  Winthrop  .  .  .  35 
First  Lord  JSaltimore  .  .  37 
Cecilius  Calvert,  Second  Lord 

Baltimore  ...  38 
Sir  Henry  Vane  .  .  .42 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  •  .  .50 
Peter  Stuyvesant  .  .  .  52 
William  Penn  ...  55 
Cotton  Mather  .  .  .63 
James  Oglethorpe  ...  72 
LaSalle  .  .  .  .74 
Jonathan  Edwards  .  .  77 
Sieur  de  Bienville  .  •  .  79 

General  Montcalm  .  .  83 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham  84 
General  Wolfe  ...  85 

George  III 88 

Pennsylvania  Journal  .  .  93 
Samuel  Adams  ...  94 
James  Otis  .  ...  .95 
Patrick  Henry  .  .  .  96 
John  Dickinson  ...  97 
Governor  Hutchinson  .  .  98 
Old  South  Church,  Boston  .  99 
Faneuil  Hall,  Boston  .  .  102 
Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia  102 
John  Hancock  .  .  .  104 
Statue  of  Minuteman  at  Con 
cord  .  .  .-.  105 
Gen.  Joseph  Warren  .  .  109 
General  Howe  .  .  .110 
Washington  Elm,  Cambridge  111 


xvii 


XV111 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


I*AGE 

Col.  Benedict  Arnold     .         .113 
Gen.  Nathanael  Greene .         .     115 
Colonial  Flag,  1776         .        .     118 
Gen.  William  Moultrie  .         .     120 
Richard  Henry  Lee      .  .         .122 
Thomas  Jefferson  .        ...     123 
House  in  which  Jefferson  wrote 
the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence         .  _       .         .     124 
Independence  Hall,  Philadel 
phia         . 
Benjamin  Franklin 
Portion  of  the  Declaration  of 

Independence  .        .     126 

Continental  Currency  .  .  131 
Marquis  de  Lafayette  .  .  132 
George  Washington  .  .  134 
Gen.  Philip  Schuyler  .  .  136 
Gen.  John  Stark  .  .  .  137 
Gen.  John  Burgoyne  .  .  138 
Baron  von  Steuben  .  .  146 
Gen.  Horatio  Gates  .  .  148 
Gen.  Anthony  Wayne  .  .  152 
Wayne's  Dispatch  to  Wash 
ington  .  .  .  .153 
Daniel  Boone  .  .  .  154 
Gen.  John  Sullivan  .  .  157 
Gen.  George  Rogers  Clark  .  158 
Captain  Paul  Jones  .  .160 
Lord  Cornwallis  .  .  .  163 
Place  of  Andrews  Execution  .  166 
Colonel  Tarleton  .  .  .  169 
Gen.  Daniel  Morgan  .  .171 
Alexander  Hamilton  .  .  182 
James  Madison  .  .  .183 
Federal  Hall,  New  York  City  188 
Blockhouse  at  Mackinaw  .  192 
Stagecoach  of  the  Time  of 

Washington  .  .  .194 
John  Jay  ....  202 
Mount  Vernon  .  203 


PAGE 

John  Adams  .        .        .  .  •   205 
Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney    207 

Albert  Gallatin       .        .  .212 

John  Marshall        .         .  .213 

Stephen  Decatur '.         .  .     215 

William  Pitt  the  Younger  .     220 

Fulton's  Steamboat        .  .     223 

Robert  Fulton         .         .  .     223 
Eli  Whitney  ....     224 

John  C.  Calhoun  '.         .  .     227 

Captain  Isaac  Hull         .  .     231 

The  Constitution   .        .  .232 

Captain  James  Lawrence  .     233 

Captain  Oliver  H.  Perry  .     234 

Commodore  Macdonough  .     236 

Andrew  Jackson    .         .  .     238 

James  Monroe        .         .  .     246 
Henry  Clay    ....     252 

John  Randolph       .         .  .     253 

John  Quincy  Adams       .  .     255 

William  Lloyd  Garrison  .     269 

Theodore  Parker    .         .  .     270 

Martin  Van  Buren          .  .     272 

Daniel  Webster     .         .  .     274 

Thomas  H.  Benton         .  .     275 

Robert  Y.  Hayne  .         .  .276 

Daniel  Webster's  Carriage  .     277 

Wendell  Phillips    .         .  .282 

William  Henry  Harrison  .     290 

John  Tyler     .         .         .  .292 

Gen.  Samuel  Houston    .  .     293 

James  K.  Polk        .        .  .297 

Gen.  Zachary  Taylor     .  .     299 

Gen.  Winfield  Scott       .  .     302 

Sutter's  Mill,  California  .     307 

Henry  Clay    .         .        .  .308 

William  H.  Seward        .  .     309 

Millard  Fillmore    .         .  .310 

Franklin  Pierce      .        .  .316 

Caleb  Cushing        .        .  .317 

Charles  Sumner     .        .  .    32£ 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XIX 


John  C.  Fremont  . 
Roger  B.  Taney     . 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  . 
James  Buchanan    . 
Stephen  A.  Douglas 
A  Typical  Pioneer's  Cabin     . 
John  Brown  .         . 
Salmon  P.  Chase    . 
Confederate    Capitol,    Mont 
gomery,  Ala.  . 
Jefferson  Davis 
Alexander  H.  Stephens . 
Cyrus  W.  Field      . 
Abraham  Lincoln  . 
Fort  Sumter  . 

Palmetto  Flag  (Confederate) 
Confederate  Flag   . 
General  Beauregard       .    .     . 
Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon     . 
Edwin  M.  Stanton 
Gen.  Ulysses  S.  Grant    . 
Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston 
Gen.  B  rax  ton  Bragg 
Gen.  W.  S.  Rosecrans   . 
Confederate  Ram  . 
John  Ericsson 
Admiral  D.  G.  Farragut 
Gen.  George  B.  McClellan      . 
Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston 
Stonewall  Jackson 
Gen.  R.  E.  Lee 
Maj.  Gen.  H.  W.  Halleck      . 
Gen.  John  Pope     . 
Gen.  A.  E.  Burnside 
Gen.  George  H.  Thomas 
Gen.  William  T.  Sherman     . 
Gen.  Joseph  Hooker 
Gen.  George  G.  Meade  . 


PAGE 

325 

327 
329 
330 
333 
334 
337 
340 

344 
345 
340 
348 
352 
355 
356 
363 
366 
368 
373 
375 
377 
379 
380 
382 
384 
385 
387 
389 
390 
393 
398 
399 
402 
411 
413 
415 
416 


PAGE 

417 
418 
425 

428 
438 


Gen.  James  Longstreet  . 
Gen.  George  E.  Pickett . 
Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  . 
Gen.  J.  B.  Hood     . 
Gen.  Philip  H.  Sheridan 
Signatures  to  the  Agreement 

for  Surrender .         .  .     439 
House  at  Appomattox  in  which 

Surrender  was  arranged  .     439 

Andrew  Johnson    .        .  .     447 

Thaddeus  Stevens  .         .  .     451 

Horatio  Seymour   .         .  .     456 

Horace  Greeley      .         .  .462 

Gen.  George  A.  Custer  .  .     467 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes      .  .     470 

Samuel  J.  Tilden   .         .  .471 
Gen.  Winfield  S.  Hancock     .     477 

James  A.  Gar  field  .         .  .478 

Chester  A.  Arthur          .  .     480 

Brooklyn  Bridge    .         .  .481 

James  G.  Elaine     .         .  .486 

Grover  Cleveland   .         .  .489 

Benjamin  Harrison         .  .     496 

William  J.  Bryan  .         .  .513 

William  McKinley          .  .     515 

Admiral  George  Dewey  .     519 

Gen.  W.  A.  Shatter        .  .520 

Admiral  W.  T.  Sampson  .     521 

The  Oregon    .         .         .  .522 

Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles     .  523 

Theodore  Roosevelt        .  .     529 

Admiral  W.  S.  Schley   .  .     534 

William  H.  Taft     .         .  .548 

Woodrow  Wilson  .         .  .     557 

Gen.  John  J.  Pershing  .  .     564 
President    Harding   and    his 

Cabinet   .  .     570 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE, 

1000  (ci'rca)  The  Northmen  reach  America. 

1492      .     .  Columbus  lands  at  Watling's  Island. 

1497  .     .  John  Cabot  lands  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

1498  .     .  Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot. 

1499-1503  Americas  Vespucius  makes  four  voyages  to  America. 

1512  .     .  Ponce  de  Leon  discovers  Florida. 

1513  .     .  Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific. 

1520      .     .  Magellan  passes  the  straits  named  after  him. 

1541      .     .  De  Soto  discovers  the  Mississippi  River. 

1562-1564  Huguenots  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 

1565      .     .  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  founded  by  the  Spanish. 

1577-1580  Drake 'makes  his  voyage  round  the  world. 

1584-1587  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh  sends  out  colonists. 

1607  .     .  Founding  of  Jamestown,  Virginia. 

1608  .     .  Champlain  founds  Quebec. 

1609  .     .  Hudson  discovers  the  Hudson  River. 
1614      .     .  The  Dutch  settle  on  Manhattan  Island. 
1620     .     .  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth. 

1626      .     .  The  Dutch  found  New  Amsterdam  (New  York  City). 

1630      .     .  Winthrop  leads  Puritan  emigration  to  Massachusetts. 

1630      .     .  Boston  founded. 

1632      .     .  Charter  for  Maryland  granted  the  second  Lord  Baltimore. 

1634  .     .  St.  Mary's,  Maryland,  founded. 

1635  .     .  Settlements  made  in  Connecticut. 

1636  .    .  Roger  Williams  founds  Providence,  Rhode  Island. 
1636      .     .  Harvard  College  founded. 

1638     .     .  New  Haven  settled. 

1638  .     .  Swedes  occupy  Delaware. 

1639  .     .  Constitution  of  Connecticut  framed. 
1643      .     .  New  England  Confederacy  established. 

1663  .     .  Government  organized  in  North  Carolina. 

1664  .     .  The  English  seize  New  Netherland  and  settle  in  New  Jersey. 
1670      .     .  Settlement  in  South  Carolina.     Charleston  founded. 
1674-1676  King  Philip's  War. 

1676      .     .  Bacon's  Rebellion  in  Virginia. 

xx 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 


XXI 


1682  .     .  La  Salle  explores  Mississippi  River. 

1682  .     .  Philadelphia  founded. 

1689-1697  King  William's  War. 

1690  .     .  Colonial  Congress  at  New  York. 

1692  .     .  Salem  witchcraft. 

1692  .     .  William  and  Mary  College  (Virginia)  founded. 

1697  .     .  Peace  of  Ryswick. 

1701  .     .  Detroit  founded. 

1701  .     .  Yale  College  founded. 

1702-1703  Queen  Anne's  War. 

1713  .     .  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 

1718  .     .  The  French  found  New  Orleans. 

1730  .     .  Baltimore  founded. 

1733  .     .  Savannah  founded. 

1744-1748  King  George's  War. 

1745  .     .  Capture  of  Louisburg. 

1746  .     .  Princeton  College  founded. 
1748  .     .  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1754  .     .  King's  (Columbia)  College  founded. 

1754  .     .  French  and  Indian  War  begins  (ends  1763). 

1755  .     .  Braddock's  defeat. 
1759  .     .  Capture  of  Quebec. 
1763  .     .  Peace  of  Paris. 

1763  .     .  The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

1765  .     .  The  Stamp  Act  passed. 

1766  .     .  Repeal  of  Stamp  Act. 

1767  .     .  Townshend  Acts. 

1768  .     .  British  troops  in  Boston. 
1770  .     .  Boston  Massacre. 

1773  .     .  "Boston  Tea-party." 

1774  .     .  Boston  Port  Bill. 

1774  .     .  First  Continental  Congress  meets  in  Philadelphia. 

1775  .     .  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord.    Siege  of  Boston.    Battle 

of  Bunker  Hill. 

1775  .     .  Mecklenburg  Resolutions. 

1776  .     .  Declaration  of  Independence. 

1777  .     .  Victories  of  Princeton,  Bennington,  and  Saratoga.     Defeats 

of  Brandy  wine  and  Germantown.     Washington  at  Valley 
Forge. 

1778  .     .  France  becomes  an  ally  of  the  United  States. 

1779  .     .  Naval  victories  of  Paul  Jones. 

1780  .     .  Arnold's  treason. 


Xxii  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

1781  .  .  Articles  of  Confederation  finally  agreed  to. 

1781  .  .  Battle  of  Cowpens.    Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown. 

1782  .  .  Preliminary  treaty  with  Great  Britain. 

1783  .  .  Peace  of  Versailles. 

1787  .  .  Federal  Convention  frames  the  Constitution. 

1787  .  .  Ordinance  concerning  the  Northwest  Territory  passed  by 

Congress. 

1788  .  .  The  states  ratify  the  Constitution. 

1789  .  .  Washington  inaugurated  at  New  York.     Organization  of 

Congress  and  the  Departments. 

1792  .  .  Formation  of  Federalist  and  Democratic-Republican  parties. 

1793  .  .  Washington's  proclamation  of  neutrality. 
1795  .  .  Jay's  Treaty  ratified. 

1798  .  .  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. 

1798  .  .  The  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 

1800  .  .  The  city  of  Washington  becomes  the  national  capital. 

1801  .  .  Jefferson  elected  President  by  the  House  of  Representatives 

1803  .  .  Purchase  of  Louisiana. 

1804  .  .  Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark. 
1807  .  .  Fulton's  steamboat. 

1807  .  .  Passage  of  the  Embargo. 

1809  .  .  The  Non-intercourse  Act. 

1812  .  .  War  with  Great  Britain. 

1814  .  .  The  British  capture  Washington. 

1814  .  .  The  Hartford  Convention. 

1814  .  .  The  Treaty  of  Ghent, 

1815  .  .  The  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

1819  .  .  Florida  purchased  from  Spain. 

1820  .  .  First  Missouri  Compromise. 
1823  .  .  Monroe  Doctrine. 

1825  .  .  Erie  Canal  opened. 

1830  .  .  Hayne- Webster  debate. 

1830  .  .  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  opened. 

1832  .  .  Nullification  in  South  Carolina. 

1832  .  .  Rise  of  the  Whig  party. 

1833  .  .  Chicago  founded. 

1836  .  .  Independence  of  Texas. 

1840  .  .  Sub-treasury  system  established. 

1840  .  .  Liberty  party  formed. 

1842  .  .  Ashburton  Treaty. 

1842  .  .  Dorr's  Rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 

1844  .  .  Morse  completes  the  first  telegraph  line. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  XXlii 

1846-1848  Mexican  War. 

1846  .  .  Wilmot  Proviso. 

1846  .  .  Oregon  Treaty. 

1848  .  .  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

1848  .  .  Discovery  of  gold  in  California. 

1850  .  .  Compromise  of  1850. 

1850  .  .  Clay  ton-Bui  wer  Treaty. 

1852  .  .  Eise  of  Know-Nothing  party. 

1853  .  .  Gadsden  Purchase. 
1864  .  .  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. 

1854  .  .  Republican  party  formed. 

1855  .  .  Struggle  in  Kansas. 

1857  .  .  Dred  Scott  Decision. 

1858  .  .  First  Atlantic  cable. 

1858  .  .  Lincoln-Douglas  debates. 

1859  .  .  John  Brown's  raid. 

1860  .  .  Election  of  Lincoln.     Secession  of  South  Carolina. 
1861-1865  The  Civil  War. 

1862  .  .  Fight  between  Merrimac  and  Monitor. 

1863  .  .  Proclamation  of  Emancipation. 

1863  .  .  Battle  of  Gettysburg.     Capture  of  Vicksburg. 

1864  .  .  Battle  of  the  Wilderness. 

1865  .  .  Surrender  of  Lee  and  Johnson. 

1865  .  .  Assassination  of  Lincoln. 

1866  .  .  Successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable. 

1867  .  .  Congressional  system  of  reconstruction. 

1867  .  .  Purchase  of  Alaska. 

1868  .  .  Impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

1869  .  .  Completion  of  the  Pacific  Railroad. 
1871  .  .  Treaty  of  Washington. 

1876  .  .  Electoral  Commission. 

1877  .  .  Troops  withdrawn  from  the  South. 
1879  .  .  Resumption  of  specie  payments. 
1883  .  .  Civil  Service  Reform  Commission 
1892  .  .  Rise  of  People's  Party. 

1898  ,  .  War  declared  with  Spain.     Treaty  of  Paris.     Acquisition  of 

the  Philippines. 

1898  .  .  Annexation  of  Hawaii. 

1901  .  .  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty. 

1902  .  .  Panama  Canal  authorized. 
1905  .  .  Treaty  of  Portsmouth. 
1907  .  .  Financial  crisis. 


xxiv  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

1909  .  .  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff. 

1909  .  .  Progressive  Movement. 

1913  .  .  Underwood  Tariff. 

1913  .  .  Federal  Reserve  Act. 

1914  .  .  Trouble  with  Mexico. 

1914  .  .  The  Great  War  in  Europe. 

1915  .  .  Loss  of  the  Lusitania. 

1916  .  .  First  woman  elected  to  Congress. 

1917  .  .  United  States  enters  the  war. 

1918  .  .  Armistice  signed. 

1919  .  .  Treaty  of  Versailles  rejected  by  Senate. 

1920  .  .  Business  depression. 

1921  .  .  Peace  treaty  with  Germany. 

1921  .  .  Armament  Limitations  Conference  at  Washington, 


PART   I. 

PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT, 

1492-1765. 


CHAPTER   I. 

DISCOVERY. 

THE   AMERICAN   INDIANS. 

1.  The  Aborigines.  —  When  America  became  known  to  Europe 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  by  no  means  an  unin 
habited  country.     Wherever  the  discoverers  effected  a  landing, 
and  however  far  they  pushed  inland,  they  found  themselves  con 
fronted  by  native  inhabitants  of  varying  degrees  of  savagery. 
Hence  the  settlement  of  both  Americas,  from  first  to  last,  has 
been  dependent  upon  the  supplanting  of  one  race  by  another 
or  upon  their  intermixture. 

2.  Characteristics  of  the  Indians.  —  The  original  inhabitants 
of  both  continents  have  been  known  as  Indians,  in  consequence 
of  a  mistake  made  by  Columbus  (§§  5-7).     The  North  American 
Indians  were  fiercer  foes  than  the  native  Mexicans  and  Peruvians 
whom  the  Spaniards,  under  Cortez  and  Pizarro,  overcame,  and 
with  whom  they  intermarried.    We  know,  however,  from  linguis 
tic  characteristics,  that  all  the  aborigines  from  the  Arctic  Circle 
to  Cape  Horn  belonged  to  the  same  race.     How  they  first  came 
to  America  is  a  matter  of  dispute  ;  but  their  main  peculiarities 

1 


DISCOVERY. 


are  well  understood.  In  Peru  and  Mexico  they  had  made  some 
progress  toward  civilization.  They  constructed  good  roads, 
were  not  unskillful  artisan s,  and  had 
even  learned  some  astronomy.  But 
they  lived  in  large  communal  groups 
under  their  chiefs,  and  had  made  slight 
advance  in  the  art  of  government; 
hence  they  fell  an  easy  prey  to  small 
bodies  of  Spaniards.  Similar  in  char 
acter  to  the  Mexicans,  but  inferior  to 
them,  were  the  Pueblos  and  Cliff- 

SPECIMEN  OF  INDIAN  POT-  dwellei>S  °f  the  r^ion  °f  NeW  Mex~ 
TERY,  fro^n  a  pound  near  1CO>  Arizona,  and  Lowe»  California, 
Pecai  ?<Jioj,;  Arkansas,  as  well  as  the  Natchez  Indians  of  the 
Now  in  the  Nat'ion.al  Mu-  Lower  Mississippi  Valley.  Most  of 
seimi  at  Washington.-  Ar  J  . 

.';<'.'.'  the    JNortn    American    Indian   tribes 

lived  in  villages  of  wigwams  and  had  a  primitive  form  of 
government.      In    each   village    there    was    a   communal,    or 


INSCRIPTION  ROCK,  NEW  MEXICO. 

"long,"  house,  in  which  clan  business  was  transacted.  In  a 
few  cases  this  "long"  house  gave  shelter  to  a  whole  tribe. 
These  Indians,  except  among  the  Southern  tribes  mentioned 
below,  were  chiefly  in  what  is  called  the  hunter  and  fisher 
state,  although  they  frequently  practiced  a  rude  form  of  agri- 


DISTRIBUTION 

OF  THE 

BARBAROUS  TRIBES 

East  of  the  Mississippi 


nrt 


To  face  p.  3. 


83 


THE  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 


3 


I 


i 


DIEGO  DE  LANDA'S  MAYA 
ALPHABET. 


culture.      Sometimes,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Digger 
Indians,  they  subsisted  mainly  on  roots.1 

3.  The  Principal  Indian  Tribes.  — 
Of  the  North  American  Indians 
with  whom  our  own  forefathers 
came  chiefly  in  contact,  there  were 
four  principal  groups,  commonly 
known  as  the  Algonquins,  the  Iro- 
quois,  the  Southern  Indians,  and 
the  Dakotahs.  The  Algonquins 
were  the  most  numerous,  although 
it  is  doubtful  if  at  any  time  they 
numbered  ninety  thousand.  Rang 
ing  through  the  vast  forests  from 
Kentucky  to  Hudson  Bay  and  from 
the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic, 
they  were  naturally  in  frequent 
conflict  with  the  .whites.  Opposed  to  these,  and  wedged 
into  the  very  center  of  their  territory,  were  the  fierce 

Iroquois,  the  craftiest  of 
their  race,  whose  tribal 
names  —  Mohawks,  Onei- 
das,  Onondagas,  Cayugas, 
and  Senecas  —  are  insep 
arably  connected  with 
rivers  and  lakes  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  They 
formed  a  loose  confeder 
acy,  called  by  the  whites  the  "Five  Nations."2  The  Southern 
Indians  showed  a  milder  disposition  and  were  given  to  agricul 
ture  and  rude  manufactures.  Of  these  the  Creeks  were  the 

1  For  a  brief  but  scientific  account  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  aborig 
ines,  see  article,  "  Indians,"  by  D.  G.  Brinton  and  J.  W.  Powell,  in  Johnson's 
Universal  Cydopxdia. 

2  They  became  the  "  Six  Nations  "  after  they  were  joined  by  the  Tuscaroras 
of  North  Carolina. 


LONG  HOUSE  OF  THE 
IROQUOIS. 


.  DISCOVERY. 


most  advanced ;  beneath  them  in  point  of  civilization  were  the 
Cherokees,  Chickasaws,  Choctaws,  and  Seminoles.1     West  of 

the    Mississippi    ranged    the 

wandering  Dakotahs  or  Sioux, 
fierce  fighters,  whose  descend 
ants  have  given  trouble  down 
to  our  own  day.  Of  the  inf  e- 
;  rior  tribes  living  in  the  extreme 

north  of  the  continent,  we  need 
take  no  special  account. 

PRE-COLUMBIAN    DISCOV 
ERERS. 


L 


4.  The  Northmen.  —  While 
Columbus  and  his  followers 
were  the  real  discoverers  of 
America  in  the  sense  that  they 
first  made  it  generally  known 
to  Europe,  it  is  practically  cer 
tain  that  they  were  not  the 
first  Europeans  to  set  foot  on 
the  new  continent.  It  is  pos 
sible  that  seamen  from  France 
and  England  preceded  Colum 
bus,  but  there  is  much  better 
reason  to  believe  that  Scandi 
navians  from  Iceland,  having 
first  discovered  Greenland, 
visited  the  North  American 
mainland  as  early  as  the  year 
1000.  Evidence  to  this  effect  is  found  in  the  so-called 
Sagas  of  the  Northmen,  poetic  chronicles  based  on  tradition 
and  dating  from  about  two  centuries  after  the  events  which 


CLIFF  DWELLINGS  ON  THE  Rio 
MANCOS. 


i  "  Seminoles  "  means  "wanderers";  the  tribe  was  made  up  of  refugees 
from  other  tribes,  notably  from  the  Creeks. 


§4] 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERERS. 


they  recorded.     According  to  these  stories,  navigators  were 
driven  south  from  Greenland  to  a  strange  shore  about  the  year 


NORTH  PUEBLO  OF  TAGS. 


985.     Fourteen  years  later,  Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  hav 
ing  introduced  Christianity  from   Norway  into  Iceland  and 


SPECIMEN  OF  SAGA  MANUSCRIPT. 


Greenland,  visited  the  newly  discovered  land,  with  thirty-five 
companions.     They  wintered   in   a  country  which,  from   its 


6 


DISCOVERY. 


[§4 


THE  DIGHTON  KOCK  IN  MASSACHUSETTS,  long  supposed  to  bear  an  inscrip 
tion  left  by  the  Northmen.  The  figures  are  now  known  to  be  Indian 
hieroglyphics. 

abundance   of  wild   grape   vines,  they  called   Vinland,  built 

some  houses,  and  then  returned  to  Greenland  with  a  cargo  of 

^:J&s^a  timber.      Several    other 

voyages  were  made 
thither  and  a  temporary 
colony  was  established, 
the  latest  mention  of 
a  voyage  dating  from 
about  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  cen 
tury.  Such  is  the  story 
of  the  Sagas.  The  main 
features  of  the  account 
are  generally  held  to 
be  correct,  but  the  loca 
tion  of  the  Northmen's 
Vinland  cannot  be  de- 

OLI>  MILL  AT  NEWPORT,  long  erroneously  termined,  and  no  arch88- 
supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  North-  ological  remains  have 

been      found     on     the 
American   continent   to   corroborate   the   Sagas.1 

1  The  remains  of  the  old  mill  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and  certain  inscrip 
tions  have  at  one  time  and  another  been  held  to  date  from  the  visits  of  the 
Northmen ;  but  archaiologists  have  not  assented  to  these  views. 


§6]        COLUMBUS  AND  THE  SPANISH  DISCOVERERS. 


COLUMBUS  AND   THE    SPANISH  DISCOVERERS. 

5.  Columbus  and  the  Indies.  —  That  Christopher  Columbus1 
of  Genoa  is  entitled  to  the  honor  of  being  considered  the  real 
discoverer  of  America 
is  clearly  proved  by 
the  fact  that  he  was 
the  first  person  who 
planned  to  sail  west 
ward  over  the  un 
known  ocean,  and  that 
he  never  faltered  in 
the  prosecution  of  his 
heroic  design.  It  is 
true  that  he  made  the 
mistake  of  thinking  he 
would  come  to  India 
rather  than  to  a  new 
continent,  and  that 
he  underestimated  the 
distance  he  would 
have  to  sail;  but 
such  mistakes  were 
natural  in  view  of  the 
lack  of  geographical  knowledge  at  that  time.  It  was  generally 
believed,  by  priest  and  layman  alike,  that  the  earth  was  flat, 

1  Born  at  Genoa,  Italy,  about  1436  ;  died,  1506.  Early  became  a  maker  of 
maps  and  charts  ;  about  1470  went  to  Lisbon,  whence  he  sailed  to  Guinea,  and 
probably  to  Iceland ;  studied  the  matter  of  circumnavigating  the  globe,  and 
planned  the  project  of  reaching  the  East  Indies  by  sailing  in  a  westerly  direc 
tion  ;  failing  to  procure  aid  in  Portugal,  went  to  Spain,  where  he  finally  re 
ceived  help  from  the  Spanish  court,  immediately  after  the  fall  of  Granada  in 
1492;  set  out  with  three  vessels,  August  3,  1492  ;  landed,  October  12;  discov 
ered  Cuba  and  Hayti,  and  reached  home  in  March,  1493;  sailed  again  in  the 
autumn  of  1493,  and  remained  till  1496 ;  made  a  third  voyage,  1498 ;  was  im 
prisoned  on  charges  of  cruelty,  and  taken  to  Spain  in  chains;  was  soon  re 
leased,  and  made  his  fourth  and  last  voyage  in  1502. 

2  No  portrait  of  Columbus  has  any  claim  to  authenticity.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  his  likeness  was  drawn  or  painted  by  any  one  who  ever  saw  him. 


COLUMBUS.2 


8 


DISCOVERY. 


and  good  Scripture  warrant  was  produced  for  the  belief.  Yet 
since  the  days  of  Aristotle  a  few  scholars  had  concluded,  from 
the  evidences  furnished  by  eclipses  and  from  other  reasons, 
that  the  earth,  was  spherical  in  form.  Columbus  had  obtained 
this  idea  from  some  source  and  seems  to  have  been  fascinated  by 
the  possibilities  it  opened.  Oriental  commerce,  especially  that 
from  India,  was  then  of  great  consequence  to  Italian  merchants; 
and  if  the  recent  military  successes  of  the  Turks  should  close 


TOSCANELLI'S  MAP  (simplified). 

the  overland  routes  to  the  East,  it  was  thought  this  commerce 
would  be  destroyed.  But  Columbus  held  that,  if  the  earth 
were  round,  India  could  be  reached  by  sailing  westward,  and 
thus  trade  could  be  carried  on  in  spite  of  the  Turks. 

6.  Motives  and  Difficulties  of  Columbus.  —  Columbus  was 
urged  on  by  patriotism,  desire  of  gain,  missionary  hopes  of 
Christianizing  distant  lands,  and  a  natural  enthusiasm  for 
heroic  enterprise.  He  corresponded  with  Toscanelli,  a  learned 
Italian,  who  sent  him  letters  and  a  map,  but  underestimated 
greatly  the  distance  to  be  traversed.  This  mistake  was  fortu- 


§7]        COLUMBUS   AND   THE   SPANISH   DISCOVERERS.  9 

nate,  as  Columbus  would  probably  never  have  secured  a  hear 
ing  had  he  proposed  to  take  a  voyage  of  ten  thousand  miles,  — 
the  actual  distance  between  Spain  and  the  East  Indies.  As 
it  was,  for  a  long  time  he  applied  in  vain  to  princes  and 
potentates  —  who  alone  could  sustain  the  expenses  of  such  an 
expedition  —  for  permission  and  means  to  make  a  voyage  which 
he  believed  to  be  about  three  thousand  miles  in  length.  The 
record  of  his  hopes  and  fears,  his  successes  and  reverses,  reads 
like  a  heroic  poem.  Fortunately  for  him,  the  Portuguese  had 
been  making  voyages  down  the  African  coast,  with  their  eyes 
fixed  on  the  Eastern  trade,  and  the  Spaniards,  strong  through 
the  recent  union  of  Castile  and  Aragon  and  the  conquest  of  the 
Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada,  had  been  aroused  to  eager  rivalry 
in  maritime  enterprise.  At  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
the  Spanish  monarchs,  Columbus  eloquently  pleaded  his  cause. 
Success  at  last  crowned  his  efforts.  Under  the  patronage  of 
Isabella  he  sailed  from  the  port  of  Palos,  with  a  fleet  of  three 
vessels,  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492. 

7.  Voyages  of  Columbus.  —  Within  a  month  the  adventurers 
had  left  the  Canaries  and  were  traversing  the  unknown  ocean. 
As  the  days  went  by  the  crews  became  restless,  but  the 
dauntless  resolution  of  Columbus  prevented  mutiny.  Finally, 
after  a  fortunate  change  of  course  to  the  southwest,  the  great 
navigator  saw  a  light  ahead,  on  the  evening  of  October  11,  and 
the  following  morning  he  found  that  an  island  had  been  reached. 
It  was  probably  Watling's  Island,  one  of  the  Bahama  group, 
though  the  identity  of  the  landing  place  has  been  a  matter  of 
much  dispute.1  On  this  first  voyage  Columbus  coasted  along 
the  northern  side  of  Cuba,  and  also  discovered  the  island  now 
known  as  Hayti.  Then,  after  losing  his  largest  ship  and  suf 
fering  many  other  trials,  he  returned  to  Spain,  confident  that  he 


1  The  diary  of  Columbus,  studied  in  connection  with  the  possible  landing 
places  in  the  West  Indies,  shows  that  the  vessels  probably  floated  past  Wat- 
ling's  Island  in  the  night  of  October  11,  and  that  a  landing  was  made  the  next 
morning  on  the  west  side  of  the  island. 


10  DISCOVERY.  [§7 

had  reached  islands  off  the  coast  of  India.  The  Spanish  sover 
eigns  received  him  with  great  respect  and  pomp,  and  soon  sent 
him  back  to  take  possession  of  his  discoveries  in  the  name  of 
Spain.  Unfortunately,  there  was  little  or  no  wealth  to  be  ob 
tained  from  the  new  possessions  except  by  capable  colonists, 
and  Columbus  was  not  fitted  to  govern  dependencies.  So 
great  did  the  opposition  to  him  become  that  he  was  arrested 
some  years  later,  on  account  of  charges  of  extortion  and  cruelty 
brought  by  his  followers,  and  was  sent  to  Spain  in  irons.  He 


SHIPS  OF  THE  TIME  OF  COLUMBUS. 

was  soon  released,  however,  and  undertook  his  fourth  and  last 
voyage.  The  results  of  his  last  three  expeditions  were  not 
important.  He  succeeded  in  exploring  more  of  Cuba,  and  in 
discovering  Jamaica.  He  reached  also  the  mouth  of  the  Ori 
noco,  and  was  much  puzzled  to  account  for  its  size,  which  was 
too  great  for  an  island  river.  On  his  last  voyage  he  coasted 
the  shores  of  Central  America,  in  a  vain  search  for  a  waterway 
to  India.  He  found  no  strait,  but  did  find  an  isthmus ;  and 
when  he  heard  reports  of  a  vast  body  of  water  lying  on  the 
other  side  of  the  land,  he  thought  that  it  must  be  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Thus  he  was  confirmed  in  his  error  with  regard  to  the 
nearness  of  India,  and  doubtless  cherished  his  delusion  to  his 


§9]         COLUMBUS  AND   THE   SPANISH   DISCOVERERS.          11 

death.     After  his  fourth  voyage  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  died 
there  in  1506,  in  poverty  and  obscurity. 

8.  The  Cabots  and  the  English  Title.  —  Almost  immediately 
after  Columbus's  first  voyage,  Pope  Alexander  VI.  issued  a 
bull  dividing  the  non-Christian  portion  of  the  world  into  two 
parts  :  Spain  to  have  all  that  she  might  discover  west  of  a  line 
to  be  drawn  one  hundred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores;  and  Por 
tugal  all  that  she  might  discover  east  of  it.     In  the  follow 
ing  year  the  rival  nations  fixed  the  line  at  three  hundred  and 
seventy  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands.     Aroused  by 
these  events,   Henry  VII.   of   England,  who  was   laying  the 
foundations  of  Tudor  greatness,  granted  a  license  of  explora 
tion  to  John  Cabot,  an  Italian  then  liviri'g  in  Bristol.     This 
seaman  landed  somewhere  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,  in  1497.     Accounts  of  the  voyage  are  unsatisfactory; 
and  those  of  the  voyage  of  1498,  supposed  to  have  been  made 
under  the  command  of  Cabot's  son  Sebastian,1  are  still  more 
vague.     That  the  Cabots  did  make  northerly  discoveries  on 
which  the  English  based  their  right  to  colonize  North  America 
is,  however,  quite  certain. 

9.  Other   Successors   of    Columbus.  —  The   discovery   of    the 
West  Indies,  as  the  new  islands  were  named  in  consequence 
of  Columbus's  mistake,  naturally  gave  a  great  impetus  to  ex 
ploration.     In  1497-98  the  Portuguese  under  Vasco  da  Gama 
rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  reached  the  real  India, 
the  goal  of  their  desires.     In  the  last  year  of  the  same  century 
another  Portuguese,  Gaspar  Cortereal,  explored  a  good  deal  of 
the  North  American  coast,  and  in  a  few  years  Newfoundland 
was  much  frequented   by  fishermen,  especially  from  France 
and  England.2     Little  was  known,  however,  about  the  geog 
raphy  of  the  new  world.     Many  strange  errors  were  current 

1  Born  about  1474,  in  Venice  or  Bristol.     Probably  accompanied  his  father 
John  in  the  latter's  first  voyage  to  America  in  1497,  and  succeeded  him  in 
command  of  the  second  expedition,  in  1498. 

2  In  consequence  of  these  discoveries  fishing  rights  on  the  island  have  been 
held  by  the  French  to  our  day. 


12 


DISCOVERY. 


[§10 


respecting  it,  and  some  years  passed  before  it  was  given  a  name. 
One  of  the  errors  was  that  North  America  was  a  projection  of 
Asia,  which  was  not  disproved  until  1728,  when  the  Russian 
navigator  Yitus  Bering  sailed  from  the  Pacific  into  the  Arctic 


SEBASTIAN  CABOT. 

Ocean.  This  error  had  much  to  do  with  the  delay  in  furnishing 
the  two  continents  with  names.  By  a  curious  chain  of  circum 
stances,  too,  the  name  finally  settled  upon  did  not  do  honor  to 
Columbus. 

10.   The  Name  "  America."  —  Among  the  early  successors  of 
this  great  explorer  was  another  Italian,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  or, 


§11]        COLUMBUS  AND  THE   SPANISH  DISCOVERERS.        13 

in  the  Latin  form  then  current,  Americus  Vespucius.1  Little 
is  known  of  him  or  his  voyages,  but  it  is  clear  that  he  was  one 
of  the  first  Europeans 
after  Columbus  to  visit 
the  northern  coast  of  South 
America,  and  that  in  1504 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his 
adventures.  This  account 
circulated  as  far  as  the  col 
lege  town  of  St.  Die  in  the 
Vosges  Mountains,  and 
was  there  printed  with  an 
introduction  by  one  of  the 
professors,  Martin  Wald- 
seemuller  by  name,  who 
proposed  that,  since  now 
a  fourth  division  of  the 
earth's  inhabited  surface 
must  be  named,  this  should 
be  known  as  America,  in 
honor  of  Americus  Vespu 
cius,  who  was  supposed  to 
have  discovered  it.  There 
appears  to  have  been  no 
intention  to  slight  Colum 
bus,  whose  voyage  to  the  Orinoco  was  probably  not  widely 
known.  At  any  rate,  the  suggestion  was  followed,  first  as 
regards  South  America,  later  with  regard  to  both  conti 
nents. 

11.    Balboa's  Discovery  of  the  Pacific.  —  Geographical  knowl 
edge  was  much  advanced  by  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 


*' 


AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS. 


i  Born  in  Florence,  1451 ;  died,  1512.  After  becoming  an  expert  astronomer 
and  map-maker,  made  four  voyages  to  America,  two  in  the  Spanish  and  two 
in  the  Portuguese  service.  To  his  Brazilian  discoveries  he  gave  the  name 
Mundus  Novus,  or  New  World. 


14 


DISCOVERY. 


[§H 


by  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa l  in  1513.  This  brave  Spaniard  had 
sought  the  New  World  for  the  sake  of  wealth,  but  had  met  with 
many  difficulties.  Lured  by  tales  told  by  the  natives  of  Panama 
of  a  large  ocean  and  lands  abounding  in  gold  beyond  the  moun 
tains,  he  made  his  way  to  the  top  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  thence 


BALBOA. 

beheld  a  great  sea  to  the  south  of  him,  which  he  called  the 
South  Sea,  a  name  long  retained  by  English  writers.  It  is 
the  irony  of  fate  that  in  the  best-known  reference  in  English 
literature  to  this  discovery, — in  the  famous  sonnet  by  Keats,— 

i  Born  in  Spain,  1475;  died,  1517.  Migrated  to  Hayti  in  1500,  and  in  1510 
accompanied  Enciso  in  an  expedition  to  Darien;  quarreled  with  Enciso 
and  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  party;  from  the  summit  of  a  moun 
tain  discovered  the  Pacific,  September  25,  1513;  was  afterward  accused 
of  treasonable  designs  and  put  to  death, 


§12]        COLUMBUS  AND  THE   SPANISH  DISCOVERERS.       1A 

the  honor  of  making  it  should  have  been  transferred  to  Cortez, 
who  had  celebrity  enough  of  his  own. 

12.  The  Voyage  of  Magellan.  —  The  name  Pacific  was  given 
to  the  great  ocean  by  the  most  glorious  of  Columbus's  succes 
sors,  the  Portuguese 
Fernado  de  Magal- 
haes,1  better  known 
as  Magellan.  In  1519, 
while  in  the  service  of 
Spain,  he  followed  the 
coast  of  South  Amer 
ica,  hoping  to  find  a 
strait  that  might  lead 
into  the  South  Sea. 
Late  in  the  next  year 
he  discovered  the  strait 
that  bears  his  name, 
and  sailed  into  the 
great  ocean  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  Pacific, 
on  account  of  its  peace 
ful  character.  This 

name  was   ironical   so 

,  .  MAGELLAN. 

far  as  his  own  career 

was  concerned ;  for  one  of  his  five  crews  mutinied,  one  ship 
was  cast  away  and  another  abandoned  him,  and  he  himself 
was  killed  in  an  encounter  with  the  natives  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.  But  he  had  won  a  glorious  immortality,  although  it 

1  Born  in  Portugal,  about  1470;  died,  1521.  Served  in  the  East  Indies  from 
1505  to  1512 ;  renounced  allegiance  to  Portugal  and  went  to  Seville,  1517 ;  con 
ceived  the  plan  of  reaching  the  East  Indies  by  a  voyage  south  of  South 
America;  in  1519  was  given  by  Charles  V.  a  squadron  of  five  ships,  with  two 
hundred  and  sixty-five  men  ;  explored  the  coast  of  South  America,  and  passed 
the  straits  which  have  since  borne  his  name,  November  28,1520;  discovered 
and  named  the  Ladrones  (Robber)  Islands;  discovered  the  Philippine  Islands, 
where,  with  eight  of  his  men,  he  was  killed. 


16  DISCOVERY.  [§  13 

was  really  the  survivors  of  his  crews  that  finally  made  their 
way  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  completed  the  first 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

13.   Spanish  Conquests.  —  Meanwhile  a  Spaniard,  Ponce  de 
Leon,1  had  discovered  Florida  in  1512  and  had  found  the  perfect 


PONCE  DE  LEON. 

climate,  but  not  the  gold  and  silver  and  fountain  of  youth  he 
sought.  His  attempt  nine  years  later  to  establish  a  colony 
there  was  a  complete  failure.  Success  attended,  however,  the 
expedition  of  Hernando  Cortez  for  the  conquest  of  Mexico 
(1519-1521),  and  similar  good  fortune  befell  that  of  Francisco 

iBorn,  1460;  died,  1521.  Spanish  explorer,  who  probably  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  He  was  governor  of  eastern  Hayti  and 
conqueror  of  Porto  Rico.  In  1512  he  started  in  search  of  the  fountain  of 
perpetual  youth,  and  landed  in  Florida,  near  St.  Augustine.  In  1521  he  re 
turned,  but  lost  most  of  his  force.  Spanish  claims  to  Florida  were  based  on 
these  discoveries. 


§  13]        COLUMBUS  AND   THE   SPANISH  DISCOVERERS.        17 


Pizarro  for  the  subversion  of  Peru  (1532).  The  New  World 
was  rapidly  alluring  the  Spaniards,  who  made  many  explora 
tions.  For  example,  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  an  officer  in  Panfilo  de 
Narvaez's  unfortunate  expedition  to  the  Gulf  coast,  wandered 
in  the  interior  regions  a  long  while,  and  finally  emerged  on  the 
Mexican  border,  with 
marvelous  tales  of  what 
he  had  seen  and  heard 
(1536).  These  tales 
caused  the  Viceroy  of 
Mexico,  Mendoza,  to 
send  a  certain  friar  to 
investigate  them;  and, 
upon  the  facts  and  the 
numerous  errors  con 
tained  in  the  friar's 
report,  hopes  were 
founded  that  induced 
the  sending  out  of  a 
large  force  under  Fran 
cisco  Vasquez  Corona- 
do  (1540-1542).  This 
expedition  conquered 
many  pueblo  villages 
of  the  Southwest,  but 
•  obtained  no  gold  or 
silver,  and,  after  struggling  as  far  north  as  Kansas,  ended 
in  a  disconsolate  retreat.  At  about  the  same  time  another 
expedition  was  moving  westward  from  Florida  through  the 
Gulf  region,  under  the  command  of  Hernando  de  Soto  (1539- 
1542).  This  gallant  man  pushed  northwest  across  the  moun 
tains  and  discovered  the  Tennessee  River,  and  later  the  Mis 
sissippi  ;  but  he  died  soon  after,  and  his  followers  abandoned 
their  enterprise.  Thus  by  the  middle  of  the  century  no  per 
manent  Spanish  settlement  had  been  made  in  what  is  now  the 
United  States.  Nor  was  Spain  long  to  have  things  her  own  way. 


DE  SOTO. 


18 


DISCOVERY. 


THE   FRENCH   EXPLORERS. 

14.  French  Discoveries.  —  As  we   have   seen,  French  fisher 
men  were  among  the  first. to  reach  Newfoundland.     A  little 

.....  later  the  voyage  of 
Giovanni  da  Verraza- 
no,  a  native  of  Flor 
ence,  under  commission 
of  Francis  I.,  showed 
the  dawning  interest  in 
the  New  World  taken 
by  the  French  court. 
In  1524  Verrazano  ex 
plored  much  of  the 
Northern  coast  as  far 
as  Newfoundland.  In 
1534  and  1535  Jacques 
Cartier 1  discovered 
Prince  Edward  Island, 
sailed  up  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and 
penetrated  the  great 
river  as  far  as  the 
present  site  of  Mont 
real,  fancying  most 
of  the  time  that  he  was  rapidly  nearing  China.2  A  few 
years  later  he  came  again,  bringing  colonists  with  him ; 
but  the  enterprise  did  not  succeed,  and  in  consequence  was 
soon  abandoned. 


JACQUES  CARTIER. 


1  Born  at  St.  Malo,  France,  1494 ;  died,  1554.    Explored  the  American  coast 
and  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  Montreal,  1535;  returned  to  France, 
but  revisited  Canada  in  1541,  and  explored  the  rapids  above  Montreal.    For 
these  explorations,  which  were  the  basis  of  the  French  claims  to  Canada, 
Cartier  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of  France. 

2  It  is  said  that  one  of  Cartier's  men,  on  seeing  the  foaming  water  above 
Montreal,  exclaimed,  "  La  Chine !  "  (China) ,  and  that  in  consequence  the  name 
"  La  Chine  "  has  ever  since  been  applied  to  the  rapids. 


§  15]  THE   FRENCH  EXPLORERS.  19 

15.    Arrival  of  Huguenots.  —  France  was  now  torn  with  civil 
and  religious  discord,  and,  as  a  result,  Admiral  Coligny,  the 
great  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  determined  to  found  a  place 
of  refuge  for  his  co-religionists  in  a  more  tempting  part  of 
America  than  Canada.     Accordingly,  in  1562,  Jean  Ribaut, 
under  his  orders,  sailed  for  the  Southern  coast  and  discovered 
the  present  St.  John's  River  in  Florida.    He  left  a  small  colony 
on  Port  Royal  Sound,  but  it  was  soon  scattered.     Two  years 
later,    Rene    de    Laudon- 
niere   established   another 
settlement     on     the     St. 
John's,   but  the  colonists 
were     disorderly.       Some 
of  them  mutinied  and  at 
tempted    to    plunder    the 
Spaniards    in    the    West 
Indies.     Learning  thus  of 
the  existence  of  the  French 
settlement,  the   Spaniards 
under  Menendez  organized 
a  strong  expedition  against 
it.     The  French  had  mean 
while  been  reenforced  by  a 
fleet  under  Ribaut  and  by 
Sir    John    Hawkins,    the 
English    slave-trader    and 

famous  fighter.  But  in  spite  of  these  reinforcements  the 
French  did  not  use  their  opportunities,  and  their  vessels  were 
soon  scattered  by  a  storm.  Then  Menendez,  who  had  just 
established  himself  at  St.  Augustine  (1565),  destroyed  the 
French  fort  and  killed  or  captured  nearly  all  the  Frenchmen  at 
that  time  in  Florida.  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
United  States,  still  stands  to  record  this  savage  warfare.  A 
little  later  a  French  soldier,  Dominic  de  Gourges,  partly 
avenged  his  countrymen ;  but  St.  Augustine  was  not  taken, 
and  the  French  crown  relinquished  all  claims  to  Florida. 


20 


DISCOVERY. 


[§16 


16.  Champlain.  —  In  the  progressive  reign  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  attention  was  once  more  paid  to  Canada.     After  a  colony 
had  failed  on  the  Isle  of  Sable,  near  Nova  Scotia,  and  another 
had  all  but  come  to  grief  in  Nova  Scotia  proper,  Samuel  de  Cham- 
plain  l  succeeded  in  establishing  a  permanent  post  at  Quebec  in 
1608.    In  a  few  years,  owing  to  the  zeal  of  the  Jesuit  mission 
aries  and  the  enterprise  of   the  fur-traders,  the   French   had 
obtained  a  firm  grip  upon  Canada  and  were  rapidly  pushing 
inland. 

THE   ENGLISH  EXPLORERS. 

17.  English   Explorations  during  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth.  — 

The  English,  unlike  the  French,  were  at  first  content  with  their 

fisheries  in  Newfoundland ; 
and  it  was  not  until  after 
1570  that  they  seriously  took 
part  in  the  affairs  of  America. 
Their  tardiness  was  probably 
at  first  due  to  the  marriage 
of  Henry  VIII.  with  a  Span 
ish  princess,  then  to  their 
own  internal  troubles  in 
consequence  of  the  Pope's 
condemnation  of  Henry's 
conduct.  Finally,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  a  love  of 
geographical  knowledge  and 
discovery  having  sprung  lip, 
they  turned  their  attention 
to  exploring  for  a  north- 
SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE.  west  passage  to  the  East. 

1  Born,  1567 ;  died,  1635.  In  1599  sailed  from  his  home  in  France  to  the  West 
Indies,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Mexico,  and  on  his  return  crossed  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  where  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  ship  canal  ;  from  1603  to  1604 
explored  the  St.  Lawrence  River  ;  founded  Quebec  in  1608 ;  discovered  the 
lake  that  bears  his  name  in  1609,  and  Lake  Huron  in  1615,  He  was  one  of 
the  most  cultured  and  gallant  of  the  early  explorers. 


18] 


THE   ENGLISH  EXPLORERS. 


21 


Martin  Frobisher  made  three  voyages  (1576-1578),  and  sought 
gold  in  Labrador.  Francis  Drake,1  in  his  voyage  round  the 
world  (1577-1580),  explored  part  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
present  United  States.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  and  his  half- 
brother,  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,2  wished  to 
colonize  as  well  as 
explore,  and  after  one 
disastrous  attempt 
Gilbert  took  posses 
sion  of  Newfoundland 
in  the  name  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  He  was 
lost  on  the  return 
voyage,  but  left  be 
hind  him  an  undying 
reputation  for  courage 
and  piety.3 

18.  Raleigh's  Colo 
nies.  —  Raleigh  con 
tinued  the  work  of 
Gilbert  by  organizing 
expeditions,  in  which 
he  took,  however,  no 
personal  part.  The  first  exploration  was  made  in  1584  by 
Philip  Amadas  and  Arthur  Barlowe.  These  two  leaders  vis 
ited  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  and  returned  bringing  favor- 

1  Born  in  1546 ;  died,  1596.    English  navigator,  who  reached  Mexico  in  1567 
and  South  America  in  1572  ;  explored  the  Pacific  coast  from  1578  to  1579,  and 
returned  to  England  the  next  year,  after  having  circumnavigated  the  globe. 

2  Born,  1552  ;  died,  1618.     English  navigator,  who,  after  serving  with  the 
French  Huguenots  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in   Ireland,  led  an  unsuccessful 
expedition  to  colonize  America  in  1579  ;  attempted  to  organize  others  with 
similar  results ;  was  confined  in  the  Tower  tor  several  years  after  1603  ;  made 
an  unsuccessful  voyage  to  Guiana ;  was  rearrested  ou  his  return,  and  executed. 

3  It  was  Gilbert  who  told  his  companions  not  to  fear,  since  heaven  was  as 
dear  by  sea  as  by  land. 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 


22  DISCOVERY.  [§  19 

able  accounts  of  the  region,  which  was  named  Virginia,  after 
the  Virgin  Queen.  The  next  year  lialeigh  fitted  out  seven 
ships,  and  'a  colony  was  established  on  Roanoke  Island.  This 
in  spite  of  several  reinforcements  finally  proved  a  failure,  the 
last  colonists  having  disappeared  in  a  manner  never  accounted 
for.1  Meanwhile  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  off  the 
coast  of  England  had  rendered  it  quite  certain  that  with 
England's  sea  power  established,  she  would  be  able  to  col 
onize  the  northern  parts  of  America  without  great  fear  of 
molestation. 

SUMMARY   OF   RESULTS. 

19.  Colonization  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  —  As  we  have  just 
seen,  Spain,  France,  and  England  made  many  efforts  during 
the  sixteenth  century  to  obtain  permanent  possessions  in  the 
New  World.      Spain  succeeded  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  made 
a  mere  beginning  in  Florida.    -France  did  not  really  get  a  foot 
hold  in  Canada  until  the  first  decade  of  the  next  century,  and 
this  was  likewise  the  case  with  the  English  in  Virginia.     All 
three  nations  had  too  many  things  to  disturb  them  at  home  to 
be  able  to  put  forth  their  full  strength  in  establishing  their 
claims  to  the  new  country.     The  work  of  exploration  in  con 
sequence   was   hazardous   and   slow.      Then,   again,   the   pre 
cise   value   of  the   possessions    they   were   striving    for   was 
not  understood.     Men  chiefly  sought  the  precious  metals,  and 
in  the  race  for  these    Spain  came  off  victor.     But  to  obtain 
them  she  sacrificed  the  lives  of  the  helpless  natives  and  of 
imported  negro  slaves,  and  thus  never  laid  the  foundations  for 
successful,   thriving   colonies.     She    injured    herself,    too,   by 
accustoming   her   own   people   to   the   idea  that   the   mother 
country  ought  to  be  supported  by  her  colonies,  and  that  labor 
was  beneath  a  Spaniard  of  good  blood. 

20.  Changes   in   the    Theory   of    Colonization.  —  France    and 
England,  also,  sought   for   gold   and   silver,  but  found  none. 

1  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  first  English  child  born  on  American  soil 
was  Virginia  Dare,  granddaughter  of  John  White,  governor  of  this  colony. 


§20]  SUMMARY   OF    RESULTS.  23 

The  lands  they  occupied  could  be  made  productive,  but  not  \)y 
the  ne'er-do-well  adventurers  who  first  came  out.  When, 
however,  fish  and  furs,  and,  later  on,  tobacco,  became  far 
more  profitable  than  the  metals  would  have  been,  the  char 
acter  of  both  English  and  French  colonists  gradually  improved. 
The  value  of  the  new  possessions  was  not  to  be  perceived  fully, 
however,  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  they  played  a 
part  in  all  the  important  European  wars.  Nor  even  then  did 
statesmen  at  home  realize  that  the  mother  country's  interests 
were  best  served  by  keeping  her  colonists  prosperous.  A 
colony  was  at  first  viewed  merely  as  a  source  of  revenue,  and 
in  some  cases  even  as  a  dumping-ground  for  criminals.  It  is 
only  of  late  that  colonies  have  figured  as  outlets  for  superfluous 
population  and  as  bases  for  extending  commercial  operations. 


REFERENCES. — GENERAL  WORKS  which  should  be  consulted  in  con 
nection  with  each  of  the  five  chapters  of  Part  I.  are :  J.  Winsor,  Narrative 
and  Critical  History  of  America  (contains  special  monographs  of  great 
value);  G.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United  States  (revised  edition);  ,R. 
Hildreth,  History  of  the  United  States ;  J.  A.  Doyle,  The  English  in 
America;  R.  G.  Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  chaps,  i.-iii.  ("Epochs  of 
American  History");  G.  P.  Fisher,  The  Colonial  Era  ("American 
History  Series"). 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  J.  Fiske,  Discovery  of -America  ;  E.  J.  Payne,  His 
tory  of  the  New  World  called  America;  W.  H.  Prescott,  Conquest  of 
Mexico  and  Conquest  of  Peru  ;  E.  Eggleston,  The  Beginners  of  a 
Nation;  J.  Winsor,  Christopher  Columbus;  also  biographies  of  Colum 
bus  by  Washington  Irving,  C.  K.  Adams,  and  C.  R.  Markham  ;  W. 
Irving,  Companions  of  Columbus  ;  A.  Helps,  Spanish  Conquest  of 
America;  F.  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France;  J.  Winsor,  From  Cartier  to 
Frontenac;  E.  J.  Payne,  Voyages  of  the  Elizabethan  Seamen  (also 
various  biographies  of  Drake,  Raleigh,  etc.);  H.  H.  Bancroft,  The  Pacific 
States,  Vol.  XVIII. 

On  the  Indians,  see  Fiske  and  Payne,  as  above,  and  the  writings  of  L. 
H.  Morgan  and  A.  F.  Bandelier.  For  full  bibliographies,  consult  Channing 
and  Hart's  Guide  to  American  History.  For  illustrative  material,  consult 
Old  Smith  Leaflets  and  Hart's  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries. 
The  first  voyage  of  Columbus  is  described  in  Cooper's  Mercedes  of  Castile ; 
Elizabethan  maritime  enterprise,  in  C.  Kingsley's  Westward  Ho  I 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   FIRST    PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,    1607-1630 

THE   SETTLEMENT   OF    VIRGINIA. 

21.  The  Virginia  Company.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the  seven 
teenth  century  England  undertook  in  earnest  to  plant  colonies 
in  North  America.     Her   only  important   rival  was   France. 
Efforts  were  first  directed  toward  the  vast  unoccupied  stretch 
of  country  between  Canada  and  Florida.     The  upper  part  of 
this  region  was  explored,  with  favorable  results,  by  Bartholo 
mew  Gosnold  in  1602,  by  Martin  Priug  in  1603,  and  by  George 
Weymouth  in  1605.     These  enterprises  were  encouraged  by 
the  new  king,  James  I.,  and  Ealeigh  was  soon  out  of  favor. 
The  work  of  colonization  required  cooperation;    and  the  ex 
ample  of  the  Muscovite  and  East  India  companies  led  certain 
important  citizens  to  obtain  a  charter  authorizing  them,  as 
the  Virginia  Company,  to  promote  and  govern  colonies  in  the 
unsettled  region.     It  was  a  favorable  time  for  such  an  under 
taking,  since  changes  in  agricultural  methods -and  other  eco 
nomic  causes  had  created  a  spirit  of  unrest  and  filled  England 
with  men  eager  for  employment.     Besides,  the  passion  for  dis 
covery  and  the  energy  that  marked  Elizabeth's  reign  had  by 
no  means  died  out,  and  fortune  seemed  beckoning  from  the  new 
shores. 

22.  The  Sub-companies.  —  The  Virginia  Company's   charter 
covered  a  region  extending  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  forty- 
fifth  degree  of  north  latitude.     This  was  not  to  be  controlled 
by  one  set  of  men,  however,  for  there  were  two  sub-companies, 
one   consisting  of  the  charter  members  living  in  or  near  Lon- 

24 


§24] 


THE   SETTLEMENT   OF   VIRGINIA. 


25 


dun,  and  the  other  of  those  living  in  or  near  Plymouth.  The 
Londoners  could  colonize  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  thirty- 
eighth  degree ;  the  Plymouth  people  from  the  forty-first  to  the 
forty-fifth,  while  the  intervening  space  was  left  to  whichever 
company  should  first  colonize  it,  with  the  proviso  that  neither 
company  should  settle  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the  other. 
This  idea  of  competition  between  the 
companies  led  to  nothing,  and  indeed 
the  whole  scheme  of  the  charter  was  a 
cumbrous  one  that  promised  little  per 
manent  success. 

23.  The   Settlement  at  Jamestown.— 

In     1607     both     sub-companies     began 

operations.     The  Plymouth  men  sent  a 

fleet  to  the  coast  of  the  present  state  of 

Maine,  but  the  colony  they  tried  to  plant 

was  a  failure.      The  London  Company 

was   more    fortunate.      Their   colonists 

reached  Chesapeake  Bay  in  the  spring, 

and  settled  about  fifty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  a  large  river, 

since  then  known  as  the  James,  in  honor  of  the  English  king. 

They  called  their  new  settlement  Jamestown,  and  at  once  began 

to  build  huts  and  fortifications. 

24.  Captain  John  Smith.1  —  Their  leading  spirit  was  Captain 
John  Smith,  an  adventurous  and  able  man,  who  in  spite  of 
jealousies  put  himself  at  the   head  of  affairs  and  saved  the 
colony.      The  men   sent  out  were   mainly  gentlemen   adven 
turers  seeking  to  mend  their  fortunes,  and  even  some  of  the 
real  workers  followed  callings  not  required  in  the  wilderness. 


THE      OLD 
AT    JAMKS- 


1  A  noted  English  adventurer ;  born,  1579 ;  died,  1632.  Fought  in  the  Nether 
lands  and  against  the  Turks ;  joined  the  expedition  to  Virginia,  1606-07 ;  on 
the  voyage  he  was  imprisoned,  but  after  landing  became  practical  head  of  the 
colony ;  explored  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries ;  returned  to  England 
in  1609 ;  explored  the  coast  of  New  England  in  1614.  He  left  voluminous  and 
romantic  accounts  of  his  exploits. 


26       FIRST   PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,  1607-1630.         [§25 


There  was  consequently  much  bickering,  and  soon  a  scarcity 
of  provisions  caused  great  suffering.     The  site  of  the  town 

proved  unhealthy,  and 
the  Indians  encoun 
tered  had  to  be 
watched.  Altogether 
the  situation  was  a 
wretched  one,  and  but 
for  the  energy  of 
Smith  and  a  few 
others,  Christopher 
Newport,  the  captain 
of  the  fleet,  who  had 
gone  back  to  Eng 
land  for  supplies, 
might  have  found  few 
vestiges  of  a  settle 
ment  on  his  return 
in  1609.  Newport 
brought  stores,  but 
also  a  number  of  un 
desirable  colonists. 
He  speedily  sailed 
back  to  England  with  a  cargo  of  shining  earth,  which  did  not 
yield  the  gold  it  promised  to  credulous  eyes.  Smith  besought 
the  Company  to  send  out  good  workmen  to  cultivate  the  rich 
soil;  and  after  awhile  the  promoters  of  the  colony  learned 
not  to  expect  vast  discoveries  of  gold  and  silver.  In  October, 
1609,  owing  to  an  accident  to  his  eyes,  Smith  left  the  colony, 
never  to  return. 

25.  Smith's  Character.  —  Smith's  relations  with  Virginia  have 
been  the  subject  of  much  hostile  criticism.  Discrepancies  have 
been  found  between  his  earlier  and  his  later  accounts  of  his 
exploits,  and  some  historians  have  been  led  to  regard  him  as 
little  more  than  a  braggart.  This  is  an  untenable  view.  His 


JOHN  SMITH. 


§26]  THE   SETTLEMENT   OF  VIRGINIA.  27 

management  of  the  refractory  colonists,  his  dealings  with  the 
Indian  chief  Powhatan,  his  wise  and  manly  remonstrances 
with  the  London  Company, 
—  all  go  to  show  that  he 
was  an  able  and  unselfish 
leader  to  whom  the  life  of 
the  struggling  settlement 
was  mainly  due.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  can  be 
little  doubt,  save  in  the 
minds  of  his  partisans,  that 
he  frequently  embellished 
his  accounts  of  his  adven 
tures,  and  that  he  is  not  the 
most  reliable  of  historians. 
It  is  not  at  all  impossible 
that  he  was  really  saved  by 
Pocahontas,1  yet  the  story 
may  be  as  mythical  as  the 
coat  of  arms  granted  to  him 
by  the  king  of  Hungary. 

26.  Annulling  of  the  Virginia  Company's  Charter.  —  In  1G09, 
the  year  of  Smith's  departure,  King  James  gave  the  Virginia 
Company  a  new  charter,  which  defined  the  limits  of  its  territory 
in  a  very  vague  way  and  increased  its  power  over  its  colonists. 
In  1612  he  gave  another  charter,  which  took  in  the  Bermuda 
Islands  and  allowed  the  shareholders  of  the  Company  to  hold 

iBorn  about  1595;  died,  1617.  Daughter  of  the  Indian  chief  Powhatan. 
Smith  reports  that  when  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  Powhatan  and  was  about 
to  be  put  to  death,  Pocahontas  placed  her  own  head  in  the  way  of  the  execu 
tioner's  club.  This  may  have  been  a  sign  that  she  wished  to  have  Smith 
spared  that  he  might  become  her  husband.  It  is  at  least  certain  that  Smith 
was  sent  back  to  Jamestown,  and  that  Pocahontas  afterward  befriended  the 
colonists.  She  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  1613,  and  christened  Rebecca; 
married  John  Rolfe  in  1614;  went  to  England  in  1616,  and  was  presented  at 
the  court  of  James  I.  as  Princess  Lady  Rebecca.  From  her  have  descended 
many  illustrious  families  of  Virginia. 


28       FIRST  PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,    1607-1630.       [§  27 

general  meetings  in  London.  Twelve  years  later,  when  the 
king's  Puritan  opponents  had  got  control  of  these  meetings  and 
used  them  for  political  purposes,  he  caused  the  charter  to  be 
annulled  by  a  decree  of  court,  which  was  a  legal  though  not  a 
justifiable  act.  The  records  of  the  Company  were  preserved 
in  a  romantic  way,1  and  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  gov 
ernment  at  Washington. 

27.  Growth  of  Virginia.  —  Meanwhile  the  colony  had  had  vari 
ous  ups  and  downs  under  several  governors,  —  Lord  Delaware, 
Sir  Thomas  Dale,  the  tyrannical  Samuel  Argall,  Sir  George 
Yeardley,  and  Sir  Francis  Wyatt,  —  but  had  on  the  whole  be 
come  firmly  established.  Dale  was  strict,  but  successful  in 
controlling  the  rougher  elements  ;  he  also  encouraged  the  policy 
of  allowing  settlers  to  become  individual  proprietors  of  land. 
Argall  was  speedily  recalled  for  his  misconduct.  Liberal  sen 
timents  then  prevailed  in  the  colony,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
allowed,  during  Yeardley's  administration,  to  hold  a  yearly 
representative  assembly,  or  legislature  (1619),  the  first  of  its 
kind  in  America.  This  long  step  toward  self-government, 
together  with  the  increasing  importance  of  the  tobacco  crop, 
gave  Virginia  a  decided  impetus,  which  the  contemporaneous 
introduction  of  slavery,  in  the  persons  of  twenty  blacks  landed 
and  sold  at  Jamestown  by  a  Dutch  ship  in  1619,  did  not  at  first 
affect.  The  presence  of  white  slaves  in  the  persons  of  inden 
tured  servants  —  a  class  recruited  from  convicts,  vagabonds, 
and  kidnapped  children  —  produced  some  confusion.  But  col- 

i  The  Privy  Council  ordered  Nicholas  Ferrar,  deputy  treasurer  of  the  Com 
pany,  to  hand  over  all  books  and  papers  of  the  corporation.  Ferrar,  having 
in  view  the  future  justification  of  his  colleagues  and  himself,  had  the  records 
copied  and  intrusted  to  the  keeping  of  the  Earl  of  Southampton,  the  Com 
pany's  treasurer,  who  had  been  elected  against  the  wishes  of  King  James.  In 
1667  the  copy  was  sold  to  William  Byrd  of  Virginia.  Then  it  passed  to  Rev. 
William  Stith,  one  of  the  earliest  Virginian  historians,  then  to  Peyton 
Randolph,  president  of  the  Continental  Congress,  then  to  Thomas  Jefferson, 
and  finally,  in  1814,  on  the  sale  of  Jefferson's  library,  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  now  in  the  Library  of  Congress  and  fills  two  folio 
volumes.  See  Fiske's  Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,  I.  chap.  vi. 


§  29]  THE   SETTLEMENT   OF  NEW   YORK.  29 

onists  of  position  and  means  soon  began  to  exert  an  influence 
opposed  to  disorder,  and  through.  Sir  Francis  Wyatt  the  Com 
pany  promised  to  stand  by  its  grant  of  free  institutions. 

28.  Charles   I.  and  the  Virginia   Burgesses.  —  In   1622   the 

colonists  endured  a  loss  of  three  hundred  settlers,  from  an  attack 
by  the  Indians  whom  they  had  maltreated.  The  collapse  of 
the  Company  (1624)  made  Virginia  a  crown  colony,  dependent 
on  the  king,  who  was  succeeded  the  next  year  (1625)  by  his 
son,  Charles  I.  Charles,  needing  money  in  order  to  be  able  to 
govern  without  his  Parliament,  tried  to  get  a  profit  out  of  a 
monopoly  of  the  tobacco  trade,  but  the  colonial  assembly,  or 
Burgesses,  as  they  were  called,  withstood  him  (1629).  The 
convening  of  this  assembly  to  discuss  such  a  matter  was  an 
important  precedent  in  the  government  of  the  crown  colonies ; 
but  the  assembly,  although  it  could  resist  the  king's  demand, 
could  not  prevent  a  royal  governor  like  Sir  John  Harvey  from 
making  himself  obnoxious.1 

THE    SETTLEMENT   OF   NEW   YORK. 

29.  Hudson  and  New  Amsterdam.  —  In  the  autumn  of  1609 
Henry  Hudson,2  an  English  seaman  employed  by  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  sailed  up  the  river  now  called   by  his 
name,  as  far  as  the  site  of  Albany.     He  was  searching  for  a 
northwest  passage  to  India;  he  found  instead  a  good  oppor 
tunity  to  trade  with   the   red   men,  which   the  Dutch   after 
ward  cultivated.      By  1615  houses  were  built  on  the  site  of 
Albany  and  of  the  present  New  York.     The  fur  trade  of  New 

1  Harvey  came  to  Virginia  in  1629,  but  by  1635  he  was  ousted  from  office 
by  the  Burgesses,  and  forced  to  go  to  England  to  appeal  to  the  king,  who  sent 
him  back.    Four  years  later,  however,  Charles,  in  order  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  his  tobacco-growing  subjects,  removed  Harvey. 

2  One  of  the  boldest  of  English  navigators,  born  about  1580 ;  explored  the 
coast  of  Greenland  in  1607 ;  in  1609  skirted  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  turning 
southward  discovered  the  Hudson ;  in  1610  entered  the  strait  and  bay  which 
were  named  for  him ;  but  his  crew  mutinied  and  put  him,  with  seven  com 
panions,  adrift.    They  were  never  heard  of  again. 


30       FIRST  PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,    1607-1630.       .[§  30 


Netherland,  as  the 
region  was  named, 
was  turned  over  to 
a  corporation  organ 
ized  for  that  pur 
pose,  called  the  New 
Netherland  Com 
pany.  Politically  no 
steps  were  taken  at 
first  against  the  Eng 
lish  title  to  the 
country.  In  1621  the 
Dutch  West  India 
Company  took  up  the 
role  of  the  New  Neth- 
erland  Company,  and 
three  years  later  sent 
over  a  number  of  colo 
nists.  These  settled 
mainly  near  Albany; 
but  there  were  other 

centers  of  population,  all  of  which  did  a  thriving  fur  trade 

with  the  Indians. 

30.    Organization  of  the  Dutch  Colony.  —  In  1626  Peter  Minuit, 
director  for  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  purchased  the 


HENRY  HUDSON. 

[By  permission  of  the  New  York  History  Company.] 


NEW  AMSTERDAM. 


Island  of  Manhattan  from  the  Indians  for  a  trifling  amount 
(about  twenty-five  dollars),  and  made  the  town  of  New 
Amsterdam,  afterward  New  York,  the  center  of  government. 


§32]  THE   PILGRIMS   AT   PLYMOUTH.  31 

In  1629  the  Company  obtained  a  new  charter  and  proceeded 
to  develop  a  semi-feudal  system  of  land  tenure  among  the 
colonists.  Individuals,  styled  "  Patroons "  (patrons),  were 
allowed  to  buy  tracts  of  land  from  the  Indians  and  to  settle 
colonists  upon  them.  For  every  colony  of  fifty  persons  the 
Patroon  was  granted  a  large  tract  for  himself ;  and  as  he  was 
given  political  and  judicial  power  over  his  colonists,  New 
Netherland  was  soon  in  the  hands  of  a  powerful  landed  aris 
tocracy,  some  families  of  which  have  retained  a  certain  prestige 
down  to  the  present  time. 

THE   PILGRIMS   AT   PLYMOUTH. 

31.  The  Plymouth  Colony.  —  The  London  Company  and  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company  had  now  established  promising 
colonies,  but  the  Plymouth  Company  had  done  nothing  since 
their  unsuccessful  attempt  in  1607.    Seven  years  later,  Captain 
John  Smith  had  made  a  voyage  along  the  northern  coast  and 
given  the  region  the  name  of  New  England.     Other  voyages 
added  to  geographical  knowledge  and  developed  the  fisheries, 
but  the  more  southerly  colonies  for  some  time  attracted  all 
intending  settlers,  and  the  reorganized  Plymouth  Company  of 
1620  might  have  fared  poorly  had  not  accident  favored  them. 
This  accident  was  nothing  less  than  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  at  Plymouth  Rock  instead  of  somewhere  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  London  Company,  as  they  at  first  intended. 

32.  The  Pilgrims  in  Holland.  — The  causes  that  led  the  Pil 
grims  to  the  New  World  were  briefly  as  follows.      There  were 
large  numbers  of  English  Protestants  who  thought  that  the 
Established  Church  of   England  had  not  sufficiently  broken 
away  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
forms  of  worship.     Such  dissatisfied  Protestants  were  called 
Puritans,  and  those  of  their  number  who  refused  to  commune 
with   the    Church   of   England  were  further  known   as    Dis 
senters.     Those  Dissenters  who  were  ruled  by  elders,  according 
to  the  system  of  Calvin  and  Knox,  were  known  as  Presby 
terians.     Such  as  desired  each  congregation  to  be  independent 


32       FIRST  PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,    1607-1630.        [§  33 

were  called  Separatists,  or  Brownists,  or  Independents.  The 
Pilgrim  Fathers  were  Separatists  who,  in  order  to  escape  per 
secution,  had  fled  from  the  village  of  Scrooby  to  Holland 
The  emigrants,  headed  by  their  pastor,  John  Robinson,  and 
their  elder,  William  Brewster,  numbered  about  one  hundred. 
Settling  first  at  Amsterdam,  then  at  Leyden,  they  were  joined 
by  other  refugees,  and  lived  peacefully  by  their  labors. 

33.  Movement    of    Pilgrims    to    America.  —  These    Pilgrims 
naturally  did  not  wish  their   children  to  become  Dutchmen  ; 
so  their  minds  turned  to  America.     Securing  a  grant  of  land 
from  the  London  Company  and   financial   aid   from  London 
capitalists  who  became   partners  in  the  enterprise,  they  col- 

'lected  their  effects  and  sailed  to  their  new  home  in  the 
Mayflower}-  They  sighted  Cape  Cod  on  November  9,  1620. 
The  captain,  for  some  reason,  would  not  sail  farther  southward ;' 
so  after  exploring  the  coast,  the  emigrants,  who  had  already 
formed  themselves  into  a  body  politic  under  a  very  liberal 
written  agreement,  landed  at  Plymouth  (December  21, 1620). 

34.  Experiences  of  the  Pilgrims.  —  Although  the  winter  was 
mild,  the  colonists  had  much  difficulty  in  obtaining   shelter 
and  food,  and  great  loss  of  life  was  the  result,  Deacon  John 
Carver,  the  first  governor,  being  among  the  victims.     William 
Bradford,   one   of  the  finest   characters   in   our   history,  suc 
ceeded  him  as  governor.     His  courage  and  that  of  his  people, 
who  believed  firmly  that  they  had  the  support  of  God,  enabled 
the  colony  to  pull  through  the  crisis.     Huts  and  a  fort  were 
built,  land  was  cleared,  and  provisions  and  fuel  laid  in  for  the 
next  winter.     In  November,  1621,  fifty  more  of  the  Leyden 
people  arrived.     These  were  a  burden  to  the  colonists  for  a 
time,  since  the  supply  of  food  was  small ;  and  distribution  was 
made,  as  at  Jamestown,  from  the  common  stock.     Settlers  con- 

llt  is  worth  noting  that  the  Mayflower  was  not  the  only  vessel  of  this 
expedition  as  it  was  first  arranged.  The  companion  ship,  Speedwell,  had 
an  accident,  and  was  obliged  to  return. 


§36]  THE   PILGRIMS   AT  PLYMOUTH.  33 

tinued  to  be  sent  out  by  the  London  partners,  but  as  a  rule 
they  came  empty  handed. 

35.  Success  of  the  Pilgrims.  —  The  colony  nevertheless  flour 
ished  under  a  patent  it  had  obtained  from  the  Plymouth  Com 
pany.     It  owed  much  of  its  success  to  Bradford,  who  was  often 
elected  to  the  governorship,  and  to  Captain  Miles  Standish,  a 
brave  soldier,  not  a  Separatist,  who 

was  especially  useful  in  managing 
the  Indians.  Various  neighboring 
settlements  of  Englishmen  who  ridi 
culed  the  strict  customs  of  the  Pil 
grims  could  not  be  easily  dealt  with; 
but  finally  the  chief  offenders, 
Thomas  Morton  and  his  associates 
at  Merrymount,  who  had  burnished 
the  Indians  with  firearms,  were  put 
down  with  a  stern  hand.  Meanwhile 
the  communal  system  was  aban 
doned  for  individual  allotments  of 

land.     At  about  the  same  time  (1627)  the  colonists  purchased 
the  share  of  the  London  capitalists  in  the  enterprise. 

36.  Government  of  the  Pilgrims.  —  They  governed  themselves 
at  first  by  a  primary  assembly,  then  by  a  general  court  com 
posed  of  two  delegates  from  each  township,  elected  by  popular 
vote,  together  with  the  governor  and  representatives,  called 
assistants.     In  1636  a  special  code  of  laws  was  adopted ;  but  on 
the  whole  the  government  remained  as  simple  as  were  the  habits 
of  the  God-fearing,  thrifty  people,  who  in  many  ways  set  an 
example  of  steadiness  and  perseverance  to  all  the  other  colo 
nists.     It  was,  however,  a  very  small  settlement,  and  after  va 
rious  failures  to  secure  its  perpetuation  through  a  royal  charter, 
it  was  finally  merged,  in  1691,  with  Massachusetts1  (§  60). 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  while  the  Pilgrims  were  Puritans,  most  of 
the  Puritans  who  settled  in  Massachusetts  were  far  from  being  Pilgrims.  The 
importance  attaching  to  the  Pilgrims  in  American  history  is  due  mainly  to 
the  priority  of  their  landing  and  to  the  picturesqueness  of  their  early  history. 


34       FIRST  PLANTATIONS  AND  COLONIES,   1607-1630.       [§  37 

THE   SETTLEMENT  OF   MASSACHUSETTS. 

37.  The  Puritans  and  the  Founding  of  Massachusetts.  —  In 
1623  some  merchants  of  Dorchester,  England,  sent  out  a  colony 
to  the  coast  of  Maine,  which  for  some  reason  was  diverted  to  the 
site  of  the  present  Gloucester  in  Massachusetts.  Three  years 

later  the  colony  was 
almost  abandoned;  but 
John  White,  the  Puri 
tan  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  Dorchester, 
fearing  the  aggressions 
of  the  Crown  in  ecclesi 
astical  matters,  advised 
the  remaining  settlers 
to  continue  at  Salem, 
whither  they  had  mi 
grated,  and  immedi 
ately  laid  plans  in 
England  for  planting 
a  permanent  colony. 
Two  years  later  a  pat 
ent  was  obtained  from 
the  Plymouth  Com 
pany  for  a  strip  of 
coast  land,  and  John 
Endicott l  led  sixty 

persons  to  Salem.     In 
JOHN  ENDICOTT.  ^^  the  ownerg  of  ^ 

patent,  who  still  lived  in  England,  were  organized  as  a  Com 
pany  and  given  a  charter  by  the  king.     This  charter  provided 

l  Born  about  1588 ;  died,  1665.  In  1628  came  to  Massachusetts  Bay  as  gov 
ernor,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  till  the  Company  was  established  and  trans 
ferred  to  New  England  in  1630;  from  1041  to  1644  and  from  1651  to  1665 
(except  1654)  was  deputy  governor;  in  1645  was  appointed  to  the  highest 
command  of  the  colonial  army,  and  in  1658  was  president  of  the  colonial 
commissioners. 


38] 


THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


35 


for  popular  election  of  the  governor  and  other  officers,  for  a 
"general  court,"  or  assembly,  as  well  as  for  the  passage  of 
laws  not  conflicting  with  those  of  England. 

38.  Government  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  —  The 
new  "Company  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England" 
was  ostensibly  to  engage  in  trade,  but  in  reality  its  founders 
intended  to  form  a  religious  commonwealth.  This  could  be 
easily  done,  since  somehow  or  other  no  proviso  that  the  Com 
pany  should  have  its  headquarters  in  England  was  inserted  in 
the  charter.  Thus  it 
was  possible  to  trans 
port  the  Company 
bodily  to  New  Eng 
land,  and  this  a  num 
ber  of  prominent 
Puritans,  at  a  meet 
ing  held  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1629,  agreed 
to  do.  There  was  to 
be  no  violent  separa 
tion  from  the  Estab 
lished  Church  except 
such  as  was  caused 
by  distance  ;  but  un 
congenial  practices 
would  be  avoided, 
and  the  heavy  hand 
of  Archbishop  Laud, 
then  the  strenuous 
Primate  of  England, 
would  hardly  reach  across  the  sea.  Thus  many  men  of 
wealth  and  education,  whose  conservatism  would  naturally 
have  prevented  their  taking  rash  steps  in  their  opposition 
to  the  Crown,  were  led  to  join  in  the  Massachusetts  enter 
prise.  In  April,  1G30,  eleven  vessels  sailed  for  America, 


JOHN  WINTHROP. 


36       FIRST  PLANTATIONS   AND   COLONIES,   1607-1630.        [§  38 

and  by  the  end  of  the  year  about  a  thousand  persons  had 
emigrated  to  the  new  colony  and  founded  such  towns  as 
Boston,  Charlestown,  and  Watertown.  They  chose  as  gov 
ernor  a  wealthy  and  highly  educated  Suffolk  gentleman,  John 
Winthrop,1  and  under  his  able  administration  the  colony  began 
a  career  of  great  prosperity  and  importance. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  To  the  list  already  given  may  be 
added:  Bryant  and  Gay,  Popular  History  of  the  United  States;  H.  C. 
Lodge,  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America;  Richard 
Frothingham,  Rise  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States. 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  J.  Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England;  J.  Fiske, 
Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors ;  J.  G.  Palfrey,  History  of  New  Eng 
land;  W.  B.  Weeden,  Economic  History  of  New  England;  P.  A.  Bruce, 
Economic  History  of  Virginia;  A.  Brown,  Genesis  of  the  United  States  ; 
J.  E.  Cooke,  Virginia  ("American  Commonwealths");  R.  C.  Win- 
throp,  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Winthrop  ;  E.  Eggleston,  Transit  of 
Civilization. 

Standard  state  and  colonial  histories,  such  as  Hutchinson's  Massa 
chusetts  and  Belknap's  New  Hampshire,  may  also  be  used,  as  well  as 
biographies  of  colonial  worthies.  For  documents,  consult  Macdonald's 
Select  Charters  Illustrative  of  American  History,  1606-1775.  Illustra 
tive  specimens  of  the  earliest  historical  writings,  such  as  Bradford's 
"  History  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  "  and  Winthrop' s  "  History  of  Massa 
chusetts"  will  be  found  in  Old  South  Leaflets,  llarVH- American  History 
told  by  Contemporaries,  Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  Library  of  American 
Literature,  and  Trent  and  Wells'  Colonial  Prose  and  Poetry.  See 
Channing  and  Hart's  Guide.  Many  books  relating  to  colonial  life  and 
manners  have  been  published  recently,  but  Edward  Eggleston's  articles 
in  the  Century  Magazine  (Vols.  III.-VIII.)  will  probably  be  sufficient 
for  most  purposes.  Longfellow's  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish 
should  be  read  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 


i  Born,  1588 ;  died,  1649.  Graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  opposed 
the  Stuarts  ;  was  made  governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1629  ;  arrived  at  Salem 
and  Boston  in  1630  ;  opposed  the  younger  Vane,  but  was  governor  again 
from  1637  to  1640,  and  a  third  time  from  1646  to  his  death.  His  journal 
"History,"  and  his  letters  are  among  the  most  valuable  historical  documents 
of  New  England. 


CHAPTER   III. 

SPREAD   OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689. 

THE  SETTLEMENT  AND   GROWTH  OF   MARYLAND. 

39.    The  First  Lord  Baltimore.  —  Among  the  most  important 
counsellors  of  James  I.  was  his  Secretary  of  State,  George 
Calvert,  the  first   Lord   Baltimore,1  who  had  been  connected 
with  both  the  London 
and    Plymouth    Com 
panies.      His   interest 
in  colonial  matters  was 
such  that  he  obtained 
a  patent  for  a  colony 
in  Newfoundland ;  but 
the    enterprise    failed 
in  spite  of  his  personal 
efforts  (1621).      Later 
he  tried  to  get  a  foot 
ing   in   Virginia  with 
some    of    his    fellow- 
religionists     (for     he 
was  a  stanch   Koman 
Catholic);  but  the  Prot 
estant    settlers   would 
not  have  them  (1G29).      Then  he  secured  a  charter  from  King 
Charles  I.  for  a  tract  which,  although  north  of  the  Potomac 
River,  was  within  the  original  bounds  of  Virginia.     The  new 

1  Born,  1582;  died,  1632.  Graduated  at  Oxford,  1597;  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1624 ;  obtained  a  patent  (1682)  from  Charles  I.  for  what  is  now 
Delaware  and  Maryland. 

37 


FIRST  LORD  BALTIMORE. 


38  SPREAD  OF   PLANTATIONS,   1630-1689.  [§40 

province  was  named  Maryland,  after  Queen  Henrietta  Maria. 

Lord  Baltimore  died  before  he  could  utilize  his  grant ;  but  his 

son,  Cecilius  Calvert, 
inherited  it  and  be 
came  almost  a  feudal 
sovereign  in  the  new 
region.  He  could 
declare  war,  appoint 
all  officers,  and  con 
fer  titles.  The  free 
men  of  the  colony 
were  to  assist  him  in 
making  laws  which 
required  no  supervi 
sion  in  England;  and 
the  colonists  were . 
granted  an  unprece 
dented  amount  of 
religious  liberty. 

40.   The  Growth  of 

CECILIUS  CALVERT,  SECOND  LORD  BALTIMORE.  Maryland.  In  .No 
vember,  1633,  Leon 
ard  Calvert,  brother  of  Cecilius,  crossed  trie  ocean  with  two 
hundred  colonists,  and  the  next  year  the  town  of  St.  Mary's 
was  founded.  Trouble  soon  arose  with  a  prominent  Virginian, 
William  Claiborne,  who  had  previously  established  a  colony  on 
Kent  Island,  within  Baltimore's  jurisdiction.  Claiborne  was 
finally  expelled,  and  the  colonists,  although  many  of  them  were 
Protestants,  settled  down  peacefully.  Disputes,  however,  soon 
arose  with  Cecilius  Calvert  over  laws  which  the  freemen  insisted 
on  passing ;  but  no  serious  trouble  occurred  until  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  in  England.  Then  the  Protestants  gained  the  upper 
hand,  and  in  1645  Leonard  Calvert  was  forced  to  flee  to  Vir 
ginia.  He  soon  returned,  however,  and  governed  until  his 
death,  in  1647.  After  this,  considerable  confusion  ensued; 


§41]        SETTLEMENT  AND   GROWTH  OF  MARYLAND.          39 

and  when  Virginia  had  been  secured  for  the  Parliamentarians 
(§  42),  Claiborne,  who  had  cherished  his  grievances,  com 
pelled  Governor  Stone  of  Maryland  to  renounce  his  allegiance 
to  Lord  Baltimore.  When  Stone  repudiated  this  agreement, 
Claiborne,  who  was  a  parliamentary  commissioner,  with  the  aid 
of  an  armed  force  deposed  him,  and  Maryland  passed  under  the 
control  of  the  Protestants,  who  would  not  allow  Roman  Catholics 
to  vote  or  hold  office.  Cromwell,  however,  forbade  interference 
with  the  rights  of  the  Second  Lord  Baltimore,  and  Stone,  the 
latter's  legal  representative,  endeavored  to  overthrow  the  Puri 
tan  government  of  the  colony,  but  was  defeated  in  a  battle  at 
Providence  in  1655.  Two  years  later,  Baltimore,  through  the 
favor  of  the  English  Parliamentarians,  recovered  his  proprie 
torship  and^obtained  control  of  Maryland,  after  a  compromise 
had  been  made  with  the  Puritan  colonists  and  their  Virginia 
abettors.  Greater  privileges  were  granted  to  the  freemen,  and 
there  was  a  general  religious  toleration.  Then  followed  the  ex 
cellent  administration  for  fourteen  years  (1661-1675)  of  Charles 
Oalvert,  the  eldest  son  of  Cecilius,  who  at  the  end  of  that  period 
became  the  third  Lord  Baltimore.  During  his  governorship 
many  Quakers  and  foreign  immigrants  were  attracted  to  the 
colony,  which  produced  fine  crops,  notably  of  tobacco. 

41.  Revolts  of  Fendall  and  Coode.  —  In  1681  there  was  a  slight 
revolt,  led  by  a  demagogue  named  Josias  Fendall,  who  had 
previously  been  treacherous  to  the  proprietor.  He  was  aided 
by  John  Coode,  a  retired  clergyman,  and  by  some  Virginians. 
The  uprising  was  easily  put  down  and  would  not  have  made 
headway  had  not  the  people  been  disturbed  by  an  unpopular 
local  law  about  the  suffrage  and  by  religious  and  economic 
legislation  in  England  (§  43).  Another  revolt  in  1689,  led  by 
Coode,  was  more  successful.  But  in  two  years  the  revolution 
ists  were  driven 'from  power,  and  Maryland  was  made  a  royal 
province,  the  proprietor  becoming  merely  a  landlord.1 

1  Under  royal  control  religious  persecution  was  allowed,  and  the  colony 
ceased  to  flourish  until  in  1715  the  Calverts  were  again  made  proprietors 
Conditions  then  improved,  and  in  1729  Baltimore  was  founded  as  a  port. 


40  SPREAD    OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§  42 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   VIRGINIA. 

42.  Virginia    under    Berkeley's    First   Administration.  —  We 

have  seen  that  the  royalist  governor,  Harvey,  caused  the  Vir 
ginians  at  first  to  regret  the  gentle  rule  of  the  London  Com 
pany.  In  1639,  however,  Sir  Francis  Wyatt  succeeded  Harvey, 
and  affairs  began  to  improve.  Three  years  later,  Sir  William 
Berkeley  began  his  long  and  checkered  career  as  the  king's 
representative.  He  was  a  brave,  well-educated  gentleman,  but 
full  of  passions  and  prejudices  that  often  brought  him  into 
conflict  with  the  colonists.  His  opposition  to  all  efforts  to 
make  the  colonial  government  more  liberal  was  intense.  He 
disliked  Roman  Catholics  and  hated  Puritans ;  hence  such 
followers  of  Baltimore  and  such  New  Englanders  as  happened 
to  enter  Virginia's  borders,  were  soon  made  uncomfortable,  as 
were  also  the  Indians,  who  were  vigorously  put  down  in  1644. 
Berkeley  and  most  of  the  Virginians  sympathized  with  Charles  I. 
in  his  struggle  against  Parliament  to  such  an  extent  that  after 
the  death  of  that  monarch  the  governor  invited  Charles  II.  to 
come  to  America.  Charles  was  too  wise  to  accept,  but  several 
thousand  cavaliers  did  come,  and  thus  the  colony  waxed  strong.1 
Parliament  did  not  fail,  however,  to  assert  its  supremacy.  It 
appointed,  as  its  commissioners,  William  Claiborne,  who  had 
played  such  a  disturbing  part  in  Maryland  affairs  and  was  an 
enterprising  trader,  and  Richard  Bennett,  a  man  of  prominence 
and  excellent  character.  It  also  sent  a  frigate  to  the  Chesa 
peake;  and  with  no, struggle  Berkeley  was  superseded  in  1652 
by  Bennett,  who  was  elected  by  the  Burgesses.  He  and  his 
successors  ruled  well,  on  the  whole,  and  the  colony  pros 
pered. 

43.  Virginia  under  Berkeley's  Second  Administration.  —  With 
the  Restoration  in  1660,  Berkeley,  who  had  been  living  quietly 
on  his  estate,  was  recalled,  and  then  a  period  of  disturbance 
set  in.     Severe  measures  against  the  Puritans  alienated  them. 

i  Compare  fifteen  thousand  in  1650  with  forty  thousand  in  1670. 


§  44]  DEVELOPMENT  OF   VIRGINIA.  41 

Enforcement  of  the  Navigation  Act,  which  compelled  colonists 
to  ship  tobacco  to  English  ports  alone  and  to  receive  European 
goods  only  from  vessels  loaded  in  England,  bore  heavily  on  all 
classes.  Then  again,  Charles  II. 's  grant  of  the  province  to  two 
of  his  dissolute  courtiers,  Lords  Arlington  and  Culpepper,  nat 
urally  caused  indignation.  At  the  same  time  the  bad  condition 
of  the  church  in  the  colony,  and  the  corruption  of  the  public 
officials,  called  for  correction.  The  Puritans  tried  to  revolt 
in  1663,  but  were  suppressed,  and  matters  grew  worse.  Berke 
ley  became  despotic  and  refused  to  call  a  new  House  of  Bur 
gesses,  the  old  House  elected  in  1660  holding  over  and  actually 
passing  a  law  restricting  the  suffrage  under  which  new  elections 
would  be  held.  To  crown  all,  the  Indians  began  to  murder 
frontier  settlers ;  but  the  governor,  who  feared  printing  presses 
and  schools,  feared  the  native  militia  also,  and  would  not  allow 
them  to  attack  the  savages. 

44.  Bacon's  Rebellion.  —  At  this  juncture,  Nathaniel  Bacon, 
a  young  member  of  the  council,  brave,  honest,  and  hot-headed, 
raised,  without  orders,  a  private  force  and  defeated  the  Indians 
(1676).  Berkeley  resented  this  unauthorized  action  and  de 
clared  Bacon  and  his  followers  rebels.  For  several  months  a 
petty  civil  war  went  on,  good  fortune  being  with  Bacon,  who 
drove  Berkeley  out  of  Jamestown,  and  burned  the  place.  The 
revolt  would  not  have  reached  such  dimensions  had  not  the 
general  situation  been  intolerable  ;  but  it  was  bound  to  be^ 
practically  local,  whatever  may  have  been  Bacon's  schemes  for 
a  general  colonial  uprising  against  the  Crown.  Even  as  a  local 
movement  it  was  soon  ended,  for  Bacon's  premature  death 
(October,  1676),  whether  from  poison  or  fever,  left  no  one  -to 
oppose  Berkeley.  The  latter  returned  to  power  and  continued 
his  tyrannical  course,  executing  no  less  than  twenty-three  of 
the  leading  rebels.  This  disgusted  Charles  II.,  who  had  shown 
much  mildness  toward  his  rebellious  subjects  in  Great  Britain. 
So  Berkeley  was  recalled  to  England  in  1677,  and  died  there 
shortly  after  in  disgrace. 


42  SPREAD  OF  PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§45 

45.  Berkeley's  Successors.  — The  Virginians  hailed  his  depar 
ture  with  bonfires ;  but  in  spite  of  his  faults,  Berkeley's  career 
is  a  pathetic  one.     He  had  not  moved  with  the  times.     His 
successors  in  office,  on  the  other  hand,  moved  too  fast,  for  they 
imitated  the  corruption  of  the  court  at  London  and  overawed 
the  colonists  in  addition  to  taking  money  from  them.      There 
were  six  of  these  governors  in  twenty-one  years.      They  quar 
reled  with  the  Burgesses  and  kept  the  colonists  in  a  ferment  of 
riots  and  hangings ;  yet  the  population  grew,  and  some  progress 
was  made.     A  new  capital  was  established  at  Williamsburg, 
and  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded  there  in 
1692  by  Rev.  James  Blair. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  NEW  ENGLAND. 

46.  The  Progress  of  Massachusetts.  —  Although  the  colony 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  had  a  most  vigorous  start,  it  was  not 

without  its  troubles  from  the 
beginning.  The  governor's 
"  assistants  "  soon  tried  to  con 
centrate  power  in  their  own 
hands,  but  the  freemen  (who, 
by  law,  must  be  church  mem 
bers)  resisted,  and  a  represent 
ative  house  was  inaugurated. 
Voting  by  ballot  was  intro 
duced  in  1634,  but  it  was  not 
until  ten  years  later  that  the 
administration  of  affairs  was 
thoroughly  organized  under 
a  governor  and  two  houses. 
The  migration  of  such  leading 
Puritans  as  Sir  Henry  Vane 
the  younger,1  and  the  proposed 
SIR  HENRY  VANE.  coming  of  others,  did  not  serve 

1  Born,  1612 ;  died,  1662.    Noted  Puritan  statesman  who  came  to  Boston  in 
1635,  and  became  governor  the  next  year ;  took  sides  with  Mrs.  Hutchinson 


§48]       DEVELOPMENT  OF  NEW  ENGLAND.        43 

to  put  down  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  colony,  which 
was  daily  increasing  in  population  and  wealth,  much  of  the 
latter  being  due  to  the  fisheries  and  the  coasting  trade.  As  a 
rule,  the  colonists  were  of  the  educated  middle  class,  thoroughly 
religious  and  devoted  to  their  pastors,  many  of  whom  were  very 
able  men.  One  of  these  clergymen,  John  Harvard,1  by  means 
of  a  legacy  and  the  gift  of  his  library,  assured  the  founding  of 
the  first  college  in  the  country,  which  has  since  grown  into  the 
great  university  at  Cambridge  that  bears  his  name. 

47.  Troubles  between  Massachusetts  and  the  Crown.  —  Mean 
while  persons  who  had  been  driven  out  for  not  conforming 
with  the  ideas  of  church  and  religion  held  by  the  majority  of 
the  citizens  of  Massachusetts,  had  complained  to  Archbishop 
Laud,  and  that  prelate  and  other  councilors  had  passed  laws 
for  securing  religious  uniformity,  obviously  aimed  at  Massa 
chusetts.      The  colony  was  soon  up  in  arms,  but  dispatched 
Edward  Winslow  to  England  to  try  first  the  force  of  plead 
ing.     The  breaking  up  of  the  Plymouth  Company  complicated 
matters,  and  after  legal  proceedings  the  colony's  charter  was 
declared  null  and  void.     The  colonists  silently  refused,  how 
ever,  to  surrender  their  charter,  and  were  saved  from  further 
external  trouble,  for  a  time,  by  the  civil  turmoils  in  England 
itself. 

48.  Domestic  Difficulties.  —  Internal  troubles  beset  them  also, 
for  they  were  as  determined  as  their  persecutors  to  have  religious 
uniformity  of  their  own  kind.     They  drove  out  the  noble  pastor 
of  Salem,  Roger  Williams,  because  he  was  opposed  to  giving 
political  power  to  church  members  only.     They  disliked,  more 
over,  his  advocacy  of  liberal  principles  of  toleration,  as  well  as 

in  the  famous  Antinomian  controversy ;  soon  returned  to  England ;  entered 
Parliament,  became  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  was  prominent  in  the  impeach 
ment  of  Straff ord ;  became  a  prominent  leader  and  frequently  opposed  Crom 
well;  presided  over  the  state  council  in  1650;  is  believed  to  have  invented 
"the  previous  question"  in  parliamentary  practice;  on  the  accession  of 
Charles  II.,  was  executed  on  the  general  charge  of  treason. 
1  Harvard  died  in  1638,  having  been  in  the  colony  only  a  year. 


44  SPREAD   OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§  49 

his  theories  limiting  the  king's  power  to  grant  lands  in  Amer 
ica.  Williams  escaped  in  the  winter  of  1636,  thanks  partly  to 
the  kindness  of  Indians,  to  whom  he  was  always  a  friend; 
in  the  spring  of  the  same  year  he  founded  Providence  Planta 
tion  on  Narragansett  Bay.  Then  Massachusetts  was  thrown 
into  a  ferment  by  a  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  who  preached  cer 
tain  theological  doctrines  distasteful  to  the  mass  of  the  Puri 
tans,  although  agreeable  to  some  of  their  leading  ministers. 
In  1637  she  was  banished ;  whereupon  some  of  her  adherents 
betook  themselves  to  the  island  of  Aquidneck,  afterward 
called  Rhode  Island,  where  she  subsequently  joined  them. 
The  affair  seems  ridiculous  now,  but  it  disturbed  the  colony 
and  marked  the  beginning  of  a  tyrannical  policy  of  repression 
that  had  evil  results  (§  55). 

49.  Foundation  of  Rhode  Island.  —  This  intolerance  led,  how 
ever,  to  the  more  rapid  settlement  of  New  England,  and  was 
thus  in  part  a  power  for  good.     The  Hutchinsonians  founded 
a  town  which  they  called  Portsmouth,  and  thither,  as  well  as 
to  Providence,  many  discontented  people  flocked  from  Massa 
chusetts,  both  settlements  receiving  bad  names  in  consequence. 
In  1639  Newport  was  founded  by  Portsmouth  people  who  dis 
sented  from  Mrs.  Hutchinson;  but  the  next  year  the  two  towns 
united  to  form  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island.     In  1644  all  the 
towns   in   the  region   joined   to   form   the   colony   of  Ehode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  under  a  charter  obtained  by 
Roger  Williams  from  the  Parliamentarians.    A  separate  charter 
was  later  obtained  by  a  faction  for  Newport  and  Portsmouth ; 
but  finally,  in  1654,  the  single  colony  was  restored  under  Wil 
liams.     It  was  a  home  of  toleration,  and  as  such  reflects  credit 
upon  Roger  Williams,  its  founder ;  but  it  was  for  a  long  time 
a  home  also  of  fanatics  of  all  sorts. 

50.  The    Connecticut    Settlements.  —  Meanwhile    settlements 
had   been   made   by  Massachusetts  men1  on  the  Connecticut 

1  Plymouth  built  a  fur-trading  house  at  Windsor  in  1633;   Dutchmen  had 
already  settled  at  Hartford. 


§  52]       DEVELOPMENT  OF  NEW  ENGLAND.        45 

River  (1635),  which  angered  the  powerful  Pequot  Indians  and 
drove  them  to  war.  The  Narragansetts  were  kept  from  the 
war-path  by  the  entreaties  ef  Roger  Williams,  but  the  Pequots 
were  strong  enough  to  harass  the  Connecticut  towns  of  Hart 
ford,  Windsor,  Saybrook,  and  W^eathersfield.  The  Connecticut 
settlers  appealed  for  aid  to  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth.  A 
small  army  was  raised  which,  under  Captains  John  Mason  and 
John  Underhill,  stormed  the  Indian  village  and  almost  exter 
minated  the  tribe  (1637). 

51.  Free  Government  in  Connecticut.  —  For  a  short  time  Con 
necticut  owed  allegiance  to  Massachusetts,  but  independence 
was  assured  in  1639.     The  people  adopted  a  written  constitu 
tion,  liberal  in  its  terms.     This  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in 
America,  and  was  chiefly  the  work  of  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker  of 
Hartford.     In  1638  a  colony  was  founded  at  New  Haven  by  a 
congregation  of  Englishmen  under  Theophilus  Eaton  and  John 
Davenport.     Other  congregations,  all  ultra-Puritanic,  formed 
towns  around,  which  were  at  first  independent,  but  afterwai'd 
united  with  New  Haven.     The  new  colony  was  weak,  however, 
and  was  finally  joined  to  Connecticut  in  1665. 

52.  Evolution  of  New  England.  —  Four  years  previously  Mass 
achusetts  had  absorbed  the  last  of  the  towns  founded  in  the 
colony  of  Maine,  which  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  had  been  endeavoring  to 
develop   since   1622.      The   colony  of  towns  planted  on  the 
Piscataqua  under  the  grant  made  by  the  Plymouth  Company 
to  John  Mason  in  1629,   which  afterward  became  known  as 
New   Hampshire,   was   incorporated   with   Massachusetts   by 
1643.1     Thus  one  by  one  the  New  England  colonies  were  being 
evolved  and  developed,  Massachusetts,  however,  retaining  her 
primacy.     While  local   differences  were  soon  to  be  detected, 
the  people  of  the  entire  region  were  one  in  their  main  charac 
teristics.      They   were   religious   after  the    Puritan    fashion. 

1  It  was  a  royal  province  from  1679  to  1685,  after  which  it  was  reunited 
with  Massachusetts. 


46  SPREAD   OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§  53 

They  were  brave  and  enterprising  in  extending  their  borders 
and  their  influence.  They  were  thrifty  and  resolute  in  ex 
tracting  wealth  from  their  rugged  soil  and  their  storm-tossed 
waters. 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  CONFEDERACY. 

53.  Formation    of    the    Confederacy.  —  Similarity  of  habits, 
union  of   interests,  and  contiguity  of   territory  naturally  led 
the  New  England  colonies  early  to  think  of  establishing  some 
form  of  political  union.     In  1637  the  Connecticut  people,  who 
were  menaced  by  the  Dutch  on  the  one  hand  and  by  the  French 
Canadians  and  Indians  on  the  other,  made  overtures  for  union 
to   the   people   of   Massachusetts.     The   latter   were   indiffer 
ent,  but  the  proposition  was  renewed  in  1639  and  in  1643,  and 
was  acted  upon  favorably  in  the  latter  year.     One  reason  for 
the  final  success  of  the  movement  for  union  was  the  belief 
that  the  civil  turmoil  in  England   might   react  on  this   side 
of  the  Atlantic,   especially  if  the   illiberal  king  should   win. 
Accordingly,  in  1643  a  written  constitution  bound  the  colonies 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven 
in  a  "  perpetual  league  of  friendship  and  amity  for  offense  and 
defense,"  under  the  name  of  "The  United  Colonies  of  New 
England."     Each   colony  was   independent   in   local  matters, 
and   each   contributed   two   members  to  a  commission  which 
determined  such  large  matters  of  common  interest  as  declaring 
war,  forming  leagues,  etc.     In  case  of  disagreement  among  the 
commissioners,  questions  were  to  be  decided   by  the   legisla 
tures  of  the  colonies. 

54.  The  Work  of  the   Confederacy.  —  The  Confederacy  thus 
established  lasted  theoretically  forty-one  years,  but  was  really 
efficient  only  during  the  first  twenty.     The  chief  difficulty  it 
had  to  contend   with   was   the   disproportionate   burden  laid 
upon   Massachusetts,   which   had   but   one  vote  and  yet  was 
more  heavily  taxed  in  men  and  money  than  any  other  member 
of  the  league.     This  led  to  friction,  but  in  the  main,  Massa 
chusetts,  being  stronger  than  the  other  colonies,  succeeded  in 


§55]       THE  NEW  ENGLAND  CONFEDERACY.         47 

directing  the  general  policy.  This  was  on  the  whole  exclusive, 
since  the  people  of  Rhode  Island  and  Maine  were  not  allowed 
to  enter  the  league.  There  was  a  curious  disregard  of  England's 
wishes  in  the  matter  of  such  a  combination  of  dependent  colo 
nies,  but  at  that  time  England  had  enough  to  do  in  looking  after 
herself.  Massachusetts  was  particularly  jealous  of  English  in 
terference,  and  did  not  even  proclaim  the  Protectorate  of  so 
stanch  a  Puritan  as  Cromwell.  The  Confederacy  need  not,  in 
deed,  have  attracted  much  notice,  for  the  commissioners  acted 
mainly  as  a  committee  to  look  after  the  general  prosperity  of 
the  colonies.  But  Massachusetts  showed  not  a  little  boldness 
in  passing  laws  against  the  raising  of  troops  in  the  interest  of 
King  Charles.  There  was  also,  as  was  to  be  expected,  quite  a 
show  of  religious  independence.  The  Presbyterians,  although 
for  a  short  time  triumphant  in  England,  were  not  so  fortunate 
in  Massachusetts ;  for  in  1648  a  synod  was  held  at  Cambridge, 
which  defined  and  established  a  Congregational  system,  the 
principles  of  which  have  been  strong  in  New  England  ever 
since,  and  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  evolution  of 
American  democracy. 

55.  Trouble  with  the  Dutch.  —  Meanwhile  the  settlers  in  New 
Haven  and  Connecticut  came  into  unpleasant  relations  with  the 
Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam,  on  account  of  settlements  pushed 
out  in  the  direction  of  the  latter.  When  England  and  Holland 
went  to  war  in  1652,  the  Connecticut  colonies  tried  to  make 
the  other  members  of  the  Confederacy  engage  in  hostilities 
with  the  Dutch  in  America,  but  Massachusetts  resisted. 
Cromwell  sent  over  a  fleet  to  Boston,  which  only  partially 
succeeded  in  coercing  Massachusetts;  but  before  the  eight 
hundred  New  Englanders  gathered  to  attack  New  Amsterdam 
could  be  utilized,  news  came  that  England  and  Holland  had 
made  peace.  Another  instance  of  local  troubles  between 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  was  due  to  a  war  of  trade 
duties  between  the  two  colonies,  which  came  near  breaking 
down  the  union.  Still  another  cause  of  commotion  was  the 


48  SPREAD   OF  PLANTATIONS,   1630-1689.  [§  56 

arrival  in  Massachusetts  of  a  few  members  of  the  newly 
established  society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  who  astonished  the 
staid  citizens  by  their  extravagant  opposition  to  the  state  re 
ligion.  Some  laws  were  passed  against  them,  and  four  were 
actually  hanged  on  Boston  Common.  Plymouth  and  New 
Haven  also  treated  them  harshly,  but  Connecticut  indulged  in 
little  persecution,  and  Rhode  Island  in  none  at  all. 

56.  Dissolution  of  the  New  England  Confederacy.  —  The  practi 
cal  breaking  up  of  the  Confederacy  followed  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  and  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  king  suspected 
that  the  colonies  wished  to  separate  completely  from  England. 
They  had  been  slow  to  recognize  his  supremacy,  and  had  har 
bored  two  of  the  judges  that  had  condemned  his  father.     At 
first  Massachusetts  managed  to  stave  off  the  crisis ;  but  in  1664 
the  king  sent  over   four  royal  commissioners  to  investigate 
colonial  affairs.      After  conquering  the   Dutch  port  of  New 
Amsterdam,  with  the  aid  of  Connecticut  and  of  the  troops  they 
brought  over,  the  commissioners  quarreled  with  the  people  of 
Massachusetts  with  regard  to  their  charter.     The  General  Court 
of  the  colony  evaded  giving  an  answer  to  the  king's  demands, 
and  his   agents   returned    home,  having   accomplished   little. 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  Plymouth  were  more  submis 
sive,  and  the  first  named  was  rewarded  with  a  liberal  charter 
and  with  the  annexation  of  New  Haven.     This  interference  of 
the  king  with  American  affairs  greatly  weakened  the  Confed 
eracy  ;  besides,  the  new  generation  that  was  growing  up  prob 
ably  did  not  feel  the  same  alienation  from  England  that  their 
fathers  had  felt. 

57.  King  Philip's  War.  —  Meanwhile  there  had  been  trouble 
with  the  Indians,  although  the  New  Englanders-  had  treated 
them  better  than  any  of  the  other  colonists  had  done  —  a  fact 
strikingly  exemplified  in  the  life  work  of  the  Apostle  John 
Eliot,  who  translated  the  Bible  into  a  written  language  rather 
unskillfully  invented  for  them  by  himself.     Troubles  arose  in 
connection  with  Alexander  and  Philip,  two  sons  of  Massasoit, 


§  59]       THE  NEW  ENGLAND  CONFEDERACY.        49 

the  friendly  chief  of  the  Pokanokets.  Alexander  died  at 
Plymouth,  and  Philip  thought  the  colonists  had  poisoned  him ; 
hence  he  planned  a  general  Indian  uprising,  making  his  head 
quarters  on  Mount  Hope,  a  peninsula  running  into  Narragansett 
Bay.  After  many  fiendish  outrages  had  been  committed  on  towns 
in  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts,  the  federal  commissioners  en 
listed  a  volunteer  army.  In  December,  1675,  this  army  attacked 
a  palisaded  fort  of  the  Indians  at  what  is  now  South  Kings 
ton,  Rhode  Island,  and  slew  about  one  thousand  warriors,  half 
the  force  within  the  walls.  Philip  still  continued  the  struggle ; 
but  the  following  August  he  was  killed,  to  the  great  rejoicing 
of  the  whole  of  New  England ;  for  the  two  years'  war,  since 
known  as  King  Philip's  War  (1675-1676),  had  been  a  frightful 
experience. 

58.  Loss  of   Massachusetts'  Charter.  —  Their  own  king  was 
now   to   give   the   people   of   Massachusetts    further    trouble. 
Massachusetts,  by  extending  her  dominion  over  New  Hamp 
shire  and  Maine,  had  involved  herself  in   disputes  with  the 
proprietors  of  those  colonies ;  Church  of  England  people  were 
enraged  at  the  fact  that  she  would  not  tolerate  their  form 
of  religious  service  or  give  them  the  suffrage ;   she  was  also 
charged  with   violating   the   navigation  laws.     Aggrieved   at 
these  things,  Charles  made  New  Hampshire  a  royal  province 
in  1679 ;  but  his  governor  proved  a  tyrant,  the  people  rebelled, 
and  in  six  years  the  sway  of  Massachusetts  was  resumed.    Con 
trol  of  Maine  was  lost  for  three  years  (1665-1668),  but  later  on 
Massachusetts  shrewdly  purchased  the  rights  of  the  proprie 
tors  over  it.     Charles  intended  to  give  Maine  to  his  son,  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  so  he  had  an  additional  pretext  for  de 
manding  that  Massachusetts  should  make  a  fair  answer  to  all 
his  complaints  —  a  course  of  action  which  the  General  Court  of 
the  colony  continued  to  evade.    In  1684,  weary  of  the  evasions  of 
Massachusetts,  he  caused  the  old  trading  charter  to  be  annulled. 

59.  The   Tyranny  of   Andros.  —  Massachusetts   was   now   a 
royal  colony,  and  in  one   year  it  exchanged  masters  for  the 


50  SPREAD   OF  PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§60 

worse.  James  II.  was  a  devoted  Koman  Catholic,  who  had  no 
sympathy  with  New  England  Puritans.  In  1686  he  sent  over 

Sir  Edmund  Andros,1 
as  governor  of  Mass 
achusetts,  Plymouth, 
New  Hampshire,  and 
Maine.  Andros  was 
a  servant  worthy  of 
his  master,  vexatious 
and  tyrannical.  He 
demanded  the  charters 
of  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut ;  his  de 
mand  was  acceded  to 
in  the  former  colony, 
but  in  the  latter  it  is 
said  that  the  important 
document  was  hid  at 
Hartford,  in  a  tree 
since  known  as  the 

"Charter  Oak.'7     The 
SIR  EDMUND  ANDROS.  i 

governor  was  not  to  be 

foiled,  however,  for  he  declared  Connecticut  to  be  under  his 
jurisdiction,  and  took  in  New  York  and  the  Jerseys  (§  68) 
as  well.  Thus  he  had  the  largest  territory  ever  ruled  by  a 
provincial  governor  in  America.  He  held  Episcopal  services 
in  Congregational  churches,  suspended  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus,  levied  illegal  taxes,  and  made  himself  thoroughly 
obnoxious. 

60.  Fall  of  Andros :  New  Charters.  —  In  the  spring  of  1689 
news  came  of  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  and  the  tyrant 
of  the  colonies  was  driven  out,  just  as  James  had  been  from  Eng- 

i  Born  in  London,  1637  ;  died,  1714.  Governor  of  New  York,  1674  to  1681 ; 
seized  New  Jersey  in  1680;  appointed  governor  of  New  England  and  New 
York  in  1686,  with  headquarters  at  Boston  ;  was  deposed  in  1689  and  sent  to 
England ;  governor  of  Virginia,  1692  to  1698. 


§  62]         DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES.  51 

land.  The  old  charters. were  restored  for  a  time,  but  in  1691 
Plymouth  and  Acadia  (§  98,  note  1)  were  added  to  Massa 
chusetts,  and  in  1692  a  new  charter  was  given  the  colony.  By 
this  instrument  the  people  were  still  permitted  to  vote  for  rep 
resentatives  ;  but  the  governor  was  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
and  religious  qualifications  for  the  suffrage  were  abolished. 
Massachusetts  was  allowed  to  keep  Maine,  but  New  Hampshire 
was  made  a  separate  colony.  Connecticut  and  Khode  Island 
recovered  their  charters,  and  the  century  ended  with  New 
England  comparatively  quiet  and  loyal. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 

61.  The  Dutch  Settlers.  —  The  Dutch  West  India  Company 
fared  badly  at  the  hands  of  its  own  members,  the  "  Patroons," 
who  shut  it  out  from  trading  with  their  estates.     It  also  had 
trouble,  as  we  have  seen,  with  New  Englanders  at  Hartford, 
and  likewise  with  the  Virginians,  who  came  trading  as  far 
north  as  the  Delaware  River.     With  the  Indians,  too,  there 
were  serious  disturbances,  chiefly  with  the  Algonquins,  through 
the  mismanagement  of  Governor  Kieft  (1643-1645). 

62.  Attempts  to  check  the  Patroons.  —  The  Company  sought 
to  check  the  power  of  the  "  Patroons  "  by  establishing  com 
munities  more  or  less  independent  of  them,  but  the  attempt 
did  not  thoroughly  succeed.     Political  disturbances  were  also 
due  in  large  measure  to  the  overbearing  conduct  of  governors, 
and  to  the  lack  of  proper  guarantees  of  popular  liberty.     In 
1641,  however,  a  council  of  twelve  deputies  from  the  settle 
ments  was  called  in  to  assist  the  governor,  and  a  little  later, 
under  Peter  Stuyvesant,1  this  was  made  a  self-perpetuating 
council.      Government  was  rendered  specially  difficult  on  ac- 

1  Last  Dutch  governor  of  New  Netherlands;  born,  1612;  died,  1682.  Ap 
pointed  governor  in  1647  ;  ruled  in  arbitrary  fashion  and  encountered  much 
popular  opposition ;  attacked  and  annexed  the  Swedish  colony  of  Delaware  in 
1655;  signed  a  treaty  surrendering  New  Netherlands  to  the  English,  Septem 
ber  9, 1664;  died  on  his  farm  of  "  Great  Bowerie,"  which  embraced  a  large 
part  of  the  present  lower  New  York  City. 


52 


SPREAD   OF   PLANTATIONS,    1680-1689. 


[§63 


count  of  the  mixture  of  population  in  the  colony.  For  example, 
so  many  French  Huguenots  had  fled  thither  that  documents 

were  often  printed  in 
both  French  and  Dutch. 

63.  Swedish  Settle 
ment.  —  Meanwhile  dif 
ficulties  a'rose  between 
the  Dutch  and  the 
Swedes;  for  in  1638 
the  South  Company 
of  Sweden,  which  had 
been  chartered  under 
Gustavus  Adolphus  by 
an  enterprising  man, 
William  Usselinx,  sent 
out  a  former  employee 
of  the  Dutch  Company, 
Peter  Minuit,  to  found 
a  colony.  He  erected 
a  fort  on  the  site  of 
what  is  now  Wilming 
ton,  Delaware,  and 
called  the  country  New 

Sweden,  under  the  protests,  of  course,  of  the  Dutch,  whose 
territorial  claims  had  been  invaded.  New  Englanders  tried 
to  establish  themselves  on  the  Schuylkill  and  in  the  present 
New  Jersey,  but  were  soon  driven  out.  The  Swedes  perse 
vered  until  Stuyvesant  built  a  fort  near  one  of  theirs,  not  far 
from  what  is  now  Newcastle,  Delaware;  and  four  years  later 
(1655)  the  Swedish  Company  was  forced  to  give  up  its  attempt 
at  colonization. 

64.  New  York  taken  by  the  English.  —  These  successes  of  the 
Dutch,  and  the  fact  that  their  territory  cut  off  New  England 
from  Virginia  and  gave  Dutch  traders,  by  means  of  the  Hud 
son  River,  the  best  possible  opportunity  of  reaching  the  Indians, 


PETER  STUYVESANT. 


§  65]        DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES.  53 

made  it  impossible  for  England  long  to  acquiesce  in  the  con 
tinuance  of  Dutch  rule  in  the  New  World.  There  had  already 
been  trouble  in  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island,  and  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill  (§§  55  and  61),  and  things  came  nearly  to  a  crisis  in 
1654,  when  Cromwell  sent  out  a  fleet  to  take  New  Netherland. 
But  peace  between  England  and  Holland  delayed  the  crisis  for 
ten  years.  In  1664  Charles  II.,  as  we  have  seen  (§  56),  renewed 
the  English  claim  to  the  territory,  and  acting  on  his  orders 
Colonel  Nicolls  menaced  New  Amsterdam  with  a  small  fleet, 
which  carried  English  regulars  and  Connecticut  volunteers. 
Governor  Stuyvesant  wished  to  hold  out,  but  the  townsmen 
surrendered  in  haste.  The  other  Dutch  settlements  yielded 
rapidly,  and  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida 
thus  became  English.  New  Netherland  was  now  called  New 
York,  in  honor  of  its  proprietor,  the  Duke  of  York,  Charles's 
brother  —  afterward  James  II.  Nicolls  was  made  governor, 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  colony  was  greatly  augmented. 

65.  Government  of  New  York.  —  Dutch  customs  were  on  the 
whole  little  changed,  but  the  form  of  government  was  modified 
in  accordance  with  English  precedents.  The  towns  were  pro 
vided  with  a  local  government,  under  an  elected  constable  and 
overseers.  Several  towns  formed  a  "  riding,"  ]  under  the  juris 
diction  of  a  sheriff ;  later,  the  ridings  became  counties.  Thus 
New  York  had  an  intermediate  system  between  the  town 
government  of  New  England  and  the  county  government  of 
Virginia  (§§  82  and  89).  The  conduct  of  colonial  affairs, 
however,  depended  entirely  on  the  governor  and  his  council. 
The  early  governors  presented  much  the  same  contrasts  of 
character  as  had  been  seen  in  the  other  colonies.  Some  were 
excellent,  others  were  tyrannical.  On  the  whole,  the  colony 
managed  to  grow  and  prosper,  although  in  1673,  when  England 
and  Holland  were  at  war,  a  Dutch  fleet  captured  the  town  of 
New  York.  The  next  year  the  province  was  given  back  to  the 
English  by  treaty,  and,  curiously  enough,  the  first  governor 

1  A  term  used  in  Yorkshire,  England,  for  a  division  of  a  county. 


54  SPREAD   OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689  [§  66 

under  the  new  English  rule  —  Edmund  Andros,  the  later 
tyrant  of  New  England  —  gave  the  colonists  an  excellent  ad 
ministration.  After  a  few  years  the  people  clamored  for  greater 
political  privileges.  An  electoral  assembly  of  deputies  and 
certain  reforms  were  in  consequence  granted  by  the  Duke  of 
York  ;  but  when  he  came  to  the  throne  as  James  II.,  he  restored 
the  old  illiberal  system. 

66.  Leisler's  Insurrection. — Relief  was  at  hand,  however; 
for  on  the  news  of  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  a  German 
shopkeeper,  Jacob  Leisler,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  militia 
and  drove  out  Francis  Nicholson,  who  was  acting  as  deputy  for 
Andros.     Leisler  was  a  rash  patriot,  who  would  not  give  up 
his  irregularly  acquired  power.    Two  years  later  he  was  forced 
to  surrender,  and  was  executed  under  circumstances  not  alto 
gether  creditable  to  the  regular  authorities.     Leisler's  admin 
istration  is  notable  for  his  having  issued  a  call  for  a  colonial 
congress,  which  came  together  at  the  town  of  New  York,  on 
May  1,  1690,  and  discussed  French  and  Indian  affairs.     After 
Leisler,  the  people  of  New  York  suffered  at  the  hands  of  a 
corrupt  governor,  Benjamin  Fletcher,  who  was  in  league  with 
the  numerous  pirates  of  the  period;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
century  his  successor,  the  Earl  of  Bellomont,  put  down  piracy 
and  corruption,  and  restored  order  generally. 

67.  The  Settlement  of  the  Jerseys.  —  Meanwhile  the  country 
south  of  New  York  and  east  of  the  Delaware  River  had  ac 
quired  the  name  of  New  Jersey,  through  the  fact  that  in  1664 
the  Duke  of  York  granted  it  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George 
Carteret,  the  latter  of  whom  had  been  governor  of  the  island 
of  Jersey  during  the  English  civil  war.     The  region  for  which 
Dutch,  Swedes,  and  English  had  already  struggled  was   still 
scantily  populated ;  but  the  proprietors  gave  it  a  liberal  form 
of  government,  and  sent  out  as  first  governor  Philip  Carteret, 
nephew  of  Sir  George,  with  a  body  of  emigrants  who  settled  at 
Elizabeth. 


§68]        DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES. 


68.  Disturbances  in  the  Jerseys.  —  Other  settlers  came  in, 
and  by  1668  a  code  of  laws  of  remarkable  severity  was  adopted 
by  the  delegates  of  the  people.  Disturbances  arose  over  the 
subject  of  the  quit-rents  paid  by  freeholders  in  discharge  of 
services,  and  Lord 
Berkeley  was  so  dis 
gusted  that  he  sold 
his  share  in  the  prov 
ince  to  certain  Qua 
kers  who  wished  to 
secure  for  their  co 
religionists  a  place 
of  refuge  in  the 
New  World.  William 
Penn1  and  some  as 
sociates  shortly  after 
ward  acquired  this 
interest.  Then  a  di 
vision  was  made  be 
tween  Carteret  and 
the  new  proprietors, 
the  Quakers  getting 
less  than  half,  which 
formed  West  New 
Jersey.  Here  they 

set  up  a  liberal  government,  which  attracted  several  hundred 
immigrants.  In  1682,  two  years  after  Carteret's  death,  William 
Penn  and  others  purchased  his  interest  in  East  New  Jersey, 
and  established  another  liberal  government.  Governor  Andros 

1  Born,  1644 ;  died,  1718.  Was  expelled  from  Oxford  for  joining  the  Quakers ; 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for  preaching  their  tenets ;  received  from  Charles 
II.  an  extensive  grant  in  1681 ;  took  possession  of  his  province  and  negotiated 
his  famous  treaty  with  Indians  in  1682;  returned  to  England  in  1684;  was 
deprived  of  his  province  in  1686 ;  regained  it  in  1688 ;  visited  America  again  at 
the  close  of  the  century ;  during  his  career  in  England  he  did  much  writing  and 
preaching,  was  now  influential  in  politics,  now  under  suspicion,  had  trouble 
with  his  settlers  in  America,  and  also  with  members  of  his  own  family. 


WILLIAM  PENN. 


56  SPREAD  OF   PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§  69 

of  New  York  endeavored  to  assert  his  jurisdiction  over  both 
the  Jerseys,  but  his  attempts  were  defeated  until  1686,  when 
James  II.,  by  writs  of  quo  warranto,1  forced  the  surrender  of 
the  patents.  The  Jerseymen,  however,  resisted  all  Andros's 
attempts  to  tax  them,  and  also  quarreled  with  the  proprietors, 
whose  land  rights  had  not  been  affected  by  the  loss  of  their 
political  powers.  Finally,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  proprietors,  worn  out  with  the  struggle,  sur 
rendered  all  their  rights  to  the  Crown,  and  the  two  provinces 
were  united  into  the  royal  colony  of  New  Jersey.2 

69.  The  Founding  of  Pennsylvania.  —  William  Penn's  interest 
in  the  colonization  of  West  Jersey  led  to  his  taking  a  greater 
part  in  American  affairs.     In  1670  his  father,  an  admiral  in 
the  English  navy,  died,  and  left  him  a  claim  against  the  gov 
ernment,  in  compensation  for  which  he  induced  Charles  II.  to 
give  him  a  charter  for  forty  thousand  square  miles  in  America 
(1681).     This  region  was  named  Pennsylvania  in  honor  of  the 
admiral,  against  the  modest  wishes  of  the  proprietor.     Penn  at 
once  offered  liberal  terms  to  colonists,  and  promised  a  thor 
oughly  equitable  government.     Later  in  1681,  three  shiploads 
of  Quakers  emigrated,  and  the  next  year  Penn  himself  came 
over  and  founded  Philadelphia.     He  soon  convened  an  assem 
bly,  and  a  code  of  laws  was  drawn  up,  allowing  considerable 
religious  freedom  and  providing  for  the  humane  treatment  of 
the  Indians.     With  these  savages  Penn,  through  his  shrewdness 
and  kindness,  was  always  successful  in  his  negotiations,  and  as 
a  result  Pennsylvania  did  not  suffer  from  border  warfare. 

70.  Mixture  of  Population.  —  The  mixed  population  for  which 
Pennsylvania  has  been   always  noted  was   present  from  the 
beginning.     The  Dutch  had  a  church  within  the  region  now 
known  as  Delaware,  and  settlements  of  Swedes  also  existed. 

1  A  writ  compelling  a  person  or  body  of  persons  to  show  by  what  authority 
they  hold  certain  rights  or  offices. 

2  Until  1738  New  Jersey  was  administered  by  the  governor  of  New  York, 
through  a  deputy. 


§  73]  THE   SOUTHERN   COLONIES.  57 

This  Delaware  region  came  into  Penn's  hands  through 
a  special  grant  from  the  Duke  of  York.  When  the  whole 
province  was  divided  into  counties,  three  were  made  in  Penn 
sylvania  proper,  and  three  in  the  small  strip  covered  by  the 
Duke's  grant,  which  became  known  as  "  The  Territories." 

71.  Delaware  made  a  Province.  —  Penn  was  soon  obliged  to 
return  to  England,  and  did  not  come  back  again  'till  the  end 
of  the  century,  when  he  paid  a  two  years'  visit.     His  absence 
was  marked  by  considerable  political  disturbance.     There  were 
boundary  disputes  with   Maryland,  and  there   was  so  much 
trouble  in  "The  Territories"  that   in  1703   Penn   made   the 
latter  the  separate  province  of  Delaware.     Disputes  in  both 
provinces  continued,  however,  and  lasted,  under  both  him  and 
his  heirs,  down  to  the  Revolution.      Nevertheless,  there  was  a 
marked  and  continuous  growth  in  material  prosperity. 

THE    SOUTHERN   COLONIES. 

72.  The   Settlement   of  the    Carolinas.  —  As   we   have  seen, 
attempts   had   been   made   to   settle   in    the    region    between 
Spanish  Florida  and  Virginia,  both  by  French  Huguenots  and 
by  Englishmen   sent  out   by  Ealeigh.      But  all  such  efforts 
had  failed.      After  the  founding  of  Jamestown,  hunters  and 
other  adventurous  spirits  wandered  through  southern  Virginia 
into  what  Charles  I.  subsequently  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath 
as  "  The  Province  of  Carolina."     This  grant  was  not  used,  but 
the  Virginia  Burgesses  authorized  exploring  expeditions  into 
the  new  region,  and  in  1653  some  Virginian  dissenters  who 
had  been  harshly  treated  formed  a  colony  in  North  Carolina, 
which  they  called  Albemarle.    Other  parties,  including  Quakers 
and  individual  settlers,  gradually  pushed  into  the  section. 

73.  Grant  of  the  Carolinas  to  Clarendon  and  Berkeley.  —  In  1663 
Charles  II.  turned  over  the  province  to  a  group  of  favorites, 
among  whom  were  the  famous  historian,  the  Earl  of  Clarendon, 
and  Sir  William  Berkeley,  the  governor  of  Virginia.     The  set 
tlers  of  Albemarle  had  their  land  claims  recognized,  and  were 


58  SPREAD   OF  PLANTATIONS,    1630-1689.  [§  74 

given  a  governor  in  the  person  of  William  Drummond,  a  Scotch 
man  who  had  settled  in  Virginia.  South  of  Albemarle,  on  the 
Cape  Fear  Biver,  a  number  of  emigrants  from  the  island  of 
Barbadoes  had  planted  a  colony,  known  as  Clarendon,  under 
the  leadership  of  Sir  John  Yeamans,  who  continued  as  gov 
ernor  under  the  new  proprietors.  Thus  there  were  a  northern 
and  a  southern  Carolina  almost  from  the  first. 

74.  Liberality  of  Proprietors.  —  The   proprietors    were   very 
liberal  to  their  colonists.     Indeed,  in  the  northern  province 
the  first  legislature  actually  felt  bold  enough  to  decree  that  no 
debts  contracted  by  settlers  previous  to  their  coming  to  Caro 
lina  could  be  collected  within  its  borders,  —  a  proceeding  which 
naturally  attracted  some  not  very  desirable  immigrants. 

75.  Locke's  Constitutions. — But  the  proprietors  made  a  great 
mistake  when  they   intrusted  to  the  celebrated  philosopher, 
John  Locke,  the  task  of  drawing  up  a  scheme  of  government 
for  their  provinces.     He  prepared  a  document  known  as  the 
"Fundamental  Constitutions,"  in  which  he  seemed  to  forget 
most  of  the  advances  toward  individual  and  popular  liberty 
that  had  been  made  since  the  Middle  Ages.     Various  divisions 
of  the  territory  were  to  be  presided  over  by  orders  of  nobility 
known  as  Landgraves,  Caciques,  etc.     The  tenants  were  called 
"leetmen,"  and  could  not  leave  the  estate  of  their  lord  without 
his  permission,  nor  could  their  children  be  anything  but  leetmen 
through  all  generations.     It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  scheme 
for  a  mediaeval  aristocracy  in  a  land  not  yet  cleared  of  forests 
was  doomed  to  failure,  for  it  at  once  produced  discontent  in  the 
settlements,  to  which  that  of  Charleston  (originally  Charles- 
town,  founded  in  1670)  was  now  added. 

76.  Progress  of  the  Carolinas.  — For  some  time  the  proprietors 
left  the  settlers  of  Albemarle,  or  the  North  Carolinians,  as  we 
may  now  call  them,  severely  alone,  and  the  people  managed  to 
live  by  means  of  a  rude  sort  of  agriculture  and  by  trade  with  New 
England.     When  governors  were  appointed  for  them,  troubles 


§  76]  THE   SOUTHERN   COLONIES.  59 

at  once  ensued,  and  the  legislature  in  1688  actually  drove  out 
Governor  Seth  Sothel,  who  by  his  corruption  and  tyranny  had 
amply  deserved  his  fate.  At  Charleston,  however,  things  went 
much  better,  and  population  and  trade  increased,  while  the 
arrival  of  considerable  numbers  of  French  Huguenots  added 
greatly  to  the  moral  and  intellectual  advancement  of  the  settlers. 
But  there  were  some  troubles.  For  example,  the  Scotch  set 
tlement  at  Port  Koyal  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Span 
iards  ;  yet  the  proprietors  would  not  allow  the  Carolinians  to 
chastise  their. enemy.  Then,  too,  the  Huguenots  were  for  some 
time  denied  political  rights,  and  the  numerous  dissenters  had 
trouble  with  the  Church  of  England  people.  Trade  restric 
tions  and  the  constant  presence  of  pirates  in  the  harbor  of 
Charleston  and  on  the  coast  were  also  a  source  of  embarrass 
ment.  Finally,  there  was  a  series  of  bad  governors,  and  it  was 
not  until  1695,  when  one  of  the  proprietors,  John  Archdale, 
a  shrewd  and  good  Quaker,  came  from  England  as  governor, 
that  things  began  to  improve. 


REFERENCES.  —  The  bibliography  is  much  the  same  as  for  Chapter 
II. ,  with  the  addition  of :  David  Ramsay,  History  of  South  Carolina 
(2  vols.)  ;  Edward  McCrady,  History  of  South  Carolina  (3  vols. )  ;  Alex 
ander  Johnston,  Connecticut  ("American  Commonwealths");  E.  H. 
Roberts,  New  York  ("American  Commonwealths");  W.  H.  Browne, 
Maryland  ("American  Commonwealths  ")  ;  C.  F.  Adams,  Massachusetts, 
its  Historians  and  its  History  •  F.  L.  Hawks,  History  of  North  Caro 
lina  (2  vols.)  ;  J.  T.  Scharf,  History  of  Delaware  (2  vols.)  ;  J.  T. 
Scharf,  History  of  Maryland  (3  vols.)  ;  S.  G.  Arnold,  History  of  Rhode 
Island  (2  vols.)  ;  S.  G.  Fisher,  The  True  William  Penn ;  W.  H.  Browne, 
George  Calvert  and  Cecilius  Calvert  ("Makers  of  America");  O.  S. 
Straus,  Eoger  Williams.  For  both  Chapters  II.  and  III.,  see  especially 
Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  chaps,  iv.,  vi.,  vii.,  and  ix. 

Several  interesting  novels  have  their  scenes  laid  in  the  early  colonial 
period  ;  of  these,  Hawthorne's  Scarlet  Letter  is  the  most  famous.  Coop 
er's  Water  Witch  and  Simms's  Cassique  of  Kiowah  describe  early  New 
York  and  Charleston.  Irving's  History  of  New  York  by  Diedrich  Knick 
erbocker  is  practically  a  work  of  fiction  and  is  full  of  humor.  For  more 
recent  and  other  older  novels,  see  Channing  and  Hart's  Guide,  §  36  a. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  COUNTRY  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

GENERAL   CONDITIONS. 

77.  Population.  —  We  have  now  learned  that  of  the  thirteen 
original  colonies, that  formed  the  United  States,  all  except  the 
youngest,  Georgia,  had  attained  individual,  or  semi-individual, 
existence  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  popula 
tion  of  New  England  in  1700  was  about  one  hundred  and  five 
thousand,  Massachusetts,  including  Maine,  leading  with  about 
seventy  thousand,  and  Connecticut  coming  second  with  about 
twenty -five  thousand.  Rhocte  Island  and  New  Hampshire  were 
much  smaller,  containing  only  six  thousand  and  five  thousand 
respectively.  Homogeneity,  thrift,  piety,  and  love  of  liberty 
characterized  the  population  of  the  New  England  colonies,  and 
were  the  presage  of  the  great  development  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury  was  to  see.  The  population  of  the  Middle  colonies  in  1700 
was  about  fifty -nine  thousand,  New  York  having  twenty-five 
thousand,  the  Jerseys  fourteen  thousand,  and  Pennsylvania 
and  Delaware  about  twenty  thousand.  Homogeneity  was 
characteristic  of  New  Jersey  alone,  both  New  York  and  Penn 
sylvania  having  very  mixed  populations.  Thrift  characterized 
all  the  Middle  region ;  but  English  enterprise  was  somewhat 
tempered  by  Dutch  phlegm  and  Quaker  sobriety.  In  the 
Southern  colonies  (if  we  may  estimate  from  figures  of  1688) 
there  were  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  persons  in  Mary 
land,  sixty  thousand  in  Virginia,  and  about  five  thousand  in  the 
Carolinas^  The  English  race  was  dominant,  but  the  presence 
of  large  numbers  of  black  slaves,  who  were  chiefly  fit  for  work 

60 


§  80]  CHARACTERISTICS   OF  NEW   ENGLAND.  61 

in  the  fields,  checked  the  enterprise  of  the  whites  by  confining 
it  practically  to  agriculture. 

78.  Social  Conditions.  —  With   regard   to   social   conditions, 
the  tendency  in  the  South  was  to  form  an  aristocracy,  based 
on  race  and  the  distinction  between  manual  and  other  forms 
of  labor.    In  New  England,  too,  there  was  an  aristocracy,  based 
mainly  on  education  and  religion,  but  also  on  birth  and  wealth. 
In  the  Middle  colonies  there  were  traces  of  an  aristocracy  in 
the  "  Patroons  "  of  New  York  and  in  the  masters  of  the  fairly 
numerous  negro  slaves.     But  on  the  whole,  manual  labor  was 
held  in  esteem,  and  the  population  was  democratic  in  its  ten 
dencies. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   NEW   ENGLAND. 

79.  Political  Characteristics  of  New  England.  —  The  aristocracy 
of  New  England  was  unlike  any  other  the  world  has  ever  seen. 
Its  members  were  energetic,  unusually  well  educated,  serious, 
and  full  of  a  sense  of  responsibility.     They  filled  with  dis 
tinction  the  public  offices  and  the  professions,  especially  the 
ministry.     Precedence  was  allowed  them  by  the  merchants, 
farmers,  and  mechanics  through  force  of  custom,  not  through 
the  presence  of  a  caste  system  like  that  of  slavery  (although 
a  few  slaves  were  owned),  or  through  the  force  of  laws  derived 
from  the  feudal  system.    As  the  masses  of  the  people  increased 
in  wealth  and  culture,  and  learned  to  use  the  opportunities 
allowed  them  by  the  New  World,  the  power  of  the  aristocracy 
naturally  decreased,  although  it  continued  to  exert  considerable 
influence  well  into  the  nineteenth  century. 

80.  Professional  Life.  —  As  was  to  be  expected  in  such  reli 
gious   communities,   the   clergy   formed  the   mosb  important 
section  of  the  aristocracy.    They  led  in  all  public  affairs,  down 
to  the  struggle  for  independence,  and  even  beyond  it,  in  spite 
of  the  loosening  of  religious  ties  that  began  to  make  itself  felt 
in    the   eighteenth  century.     The   other   learned   professions 
did  not  at  first  reach  corresponding  importance.     There  were 
hardly  any   trained  barristers   before   the   beginning   of  the 


62       END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.      [§  81 

eighteenth  century,  although  the  magistrates  were  men  of 
good  character  and  general  education.  The  physicians,  like 
their  European  brethren,  used  strange  drugs,  and  prescribed 
heroic  remedies  which  seem  very  queer  to  us  now ;  and  they 
frequently  combined  their  profession  with  that  of  the  gospel 
or  with  the  trade  of  the  barber. 

81.  Mechanic  Arts  and  Commerce.  —  In  the  mechanical  arts, 
the  New  Englanders  were  more  independent  than  the  other 
colonists.     They  imported  elaborate   manufactured   products, 
but  supplied  themselves  with  the  simpler  ones  in  spite  of  the 
repressive  effects  of  English  laws.     Among  the  most  impor 
tant  industries  were  mining,  timber-cutting,  tanning,  and  dis 
tilling.     Various  needful  commodities  were  manufactured  in 
small   quantities,   while   almost  every  farmer's   family  made 
homespun  cloth  for  its  own  consumption,  as  well  as  nails  and 
similar  articles.     Fishing  was  carried  on  at  great  profit,  and 
ship-building  had  developed  considerably  by  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.     The  whale  fisheries  were  specially  impor 
tant  and  attracted  many  adventurous  men.     The  hardy  sailors 
made  both  coast  and  ocean  voyages,  the  trade  with  the  West 
Indies  being  of  great  consequence,  since  from  these  islands 
sugar  and  molasses  were  brought  home  and  made  into  rum. 

82.  Town  Life  in  New  England.  —  Boston  and  New  Haven 
were  the  chief  towns,  and  presented  a  prosperous  appearance. 
There  were  many  well-kept  villages,  which  were   centers   of 
active  political  life,  since  those  local  affairs    which  were   far 
more  important  to  the  inhabitants  than  the  more  general  busi 
ness  of  the  colony,  were  settled  by  the  citizens  at  town  meet 
ings.     The  houses  of  the  people  were  on  the  whole  comfortable. 
Each  village  had  a  school  for  the  common  branches,  and  soon 
good  Latin  schools  were  provided.      Puritan  simplicity  pre 
vailed  in  manners  and  dress,  and,  what  was  better,  in  conduct, 
crime  being  rare.     There  is  practically  but  one  stain  on  New 
England  character  during  the  early  colonial  period  —  the  stain 
of  persecution.  We  have  already  seen  its  effects  in  the  religious 


§83] 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF  NEW   ENGLAND. 


63 


intolerance  displayed  against  churchmen  and  Quakers  and  inde 
pendent  thinkers  like  Roger  Williams ;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  it  took  an  even  worse  form. 

83.  The  Persecution  of  the  Witches.  —  Owing  to  political  dis 
turbances,  fear  of  Indians,  and  the  ravages  of  smallpox 
epidemics,  the  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts,  near  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  were  seized  with  great  despondency. 
In  common  with 
many  persons  in  Eng 
land  and  in  Germany 
they  believed  that  the 
Scriptural  injunction, 
"Thou  shalt  not  suf 
fer  a  witch  to  live/' 
was  binding  upon 
a  modern  Christian 
community.  Under 
the  impulse  of  this 
belief  they  began  a 
persecution  of  many 
citizens,  chiefly  old 
women,  for  the  sup 
posed  crime  of  witch 
craft.  Trials  were 
held,  presided  over 
by  learned  magis 
trates  ;  the  testimony 
of  frightened  children  was  taken ;  and  in  Salem  (1692)  nineteen 
persons  were  hanged,  and  one  pressed  to  death.  Hundreds  of 
others  were  arrested  on  suspicion,  and  for  a  time  the  colony 
seemed  completely  to  have  lost  its  reason.  Even  such  a  distin 
guished  scholar  and  minister  as  Cotton  Mather  l  shared  in  the 

IBorn,  1663;  died,  1728.  Graduated  at  Harvard  before  he  was  sixteen; 
urged  the  witchcraft  persecutions  with  great  energy  ;  wrote  much  against 
intemperance  and  on  many  other  subjects,  his  learned  and  quaint  works 
numbering  about  four  hundred. 


COTTON  MATHER. 


64       END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.      [§  84 

frenzy  and  defended  it.  But  Judge  Samuel  Sewall  (now  known 
for  a  famous  diary  descriptive  of  the  life  of  the  period)  made  a 
public  recantation  in  church  of  his  share  in  the  frightful  busi 
ness.  It  was  indeed  a  terrible  time,  but  New  England  emerged 
from  it  safely,  and  could  point  in  extenuation  to  many  similar 
outbreaks  of  popular  frenzy  in  the  Old  World. 

84.  Literature.  —  It  has  been  held,  with  much  show  of 
truth,  that  only  a  people  gifted  with  imagination  could  have 
been  stirred  into  such  a  frenzied  state  of  mind  as  characterized 
the  New  Englanders  during  the  persecution  of  the  witches. 
Unfortunately,  their  imaginative  powers  were  employed  too 
exclusively  upon  religious  and  theological  themes,  with  the 
result  that  although  much  was  written  in  New  England  dur 
ing  the  seventeenth  century,  little  truly  imaginative  literature 
was  produced.  Drama  and  fiction  were  non-existent,  and  the 
verse  written  hardly  rose  to  the  dignity  of  poetry.  Mrs. 
Anne  Bradstreet  (1613-1672)  and  the  Eev.  Michael  Wiggles- 
worth  (1631-1705,  author  of  a  quaint,  grewsome  poem  en 
titled  The  Day  of  Doom)  are  almost  the  only  poets  worthy 
of  mention,  and  their  works  are  unread  to-day.  There  were, 
on  the  other  hand,  many  learned  divines,  like  Thomas  Hooker 
(1586-1647),  John  Cotton  (1585-1652),  Roger  Williams  (1607- 
1684),  and  Increase  Mather  (1639-1723),  whose  sermons  and 
religious  tracts  were  widely  read  by  their  contemporaries ;  but 
oblivion  has  fallen  upon  them  also,  save  perhaps  in  the  case 
of  Williams.  Next  in  importance  to  theology  stood  history, 
and  among  the  historians  the  chief  place  must  be  given  to 
Governors  William  Bradford  and  John  Winthrop,  who  wrote 
the  early  annals  of  their  respective  colonies  of  Plymouth  and 
Massachusetts  Bay.  But  probably  the  most  able  and  distin 
guished  writer  produced  in  America  during  the  seventeenth 
century  was  the  celebrated  divine  already  mentioned,  Cotton 
Mather  (1663-1728),  who  was,  as  scholar,  theologian,  and  his 
torian,  an  epitome  of  the  learning  of  the  age.  His  best-known 
book,  Magnolia  Christi  Americana  (1702),  is  an  ecclesiastical 


§86]      CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES.       65 

history  of  New  England  that  is  of  great  value  to  all  students 
of  early  American  annals.  There  was  a  little  writing  done  in 
the  Middle  and  Southern  colonies,  but  it  did  not  differ  in 
quality  from  that  done  in  New  England  and  does  not  demand 
attention  here. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES. 

85.  Social  Classes*  and  Occupations.  —  The  Middle   colonies, 
as  we  have  seen,  were  in  the  main  democratic,  but  the  New 
York  "  Patroons  "  on  their  estates  asserted  their  privileges  as 
semi-feudal  landlords,  and  in  their  town  houses  even  lived  in 
comparative  luxury.    Among  the  Quakers,  too,  in  the  other  colo 
nies,  there  were  always  some  leading  families  that  formed  a 
quasi-aristoeracy.     The  professions,  as  in  New  England,  com 
manded  the  respect  of  the  people,  especially  in  Pennsylvania, 
which  attracted  some  well-educated  settlers.     The  masses  of 
the  people  were  engaged   either   in   agriculture  or  in  trade. 
Fur  was  the  most  important  article  of  export ;  but  grain  and 
flour  were  also  exported  in   return   for  foreign  commodities. 
Manufacturing  was  carried  on  in  a  small  way,  especially  by 
the  Germans   at   Germantown,    Pennsylvania.      There  was  a 
fair  amount  of  coast  and  river  trade  ;  for  the  roads  were  quite 
bad,  except  on  the  main  post-line  running  from  New  York  to 
Philadelphia  through  New  Jersey,  and  in  consequence  the 
waterways  were  much  used  for  purposes  of  transportation  of 
goods  and  travelers. 

86.  Social  and  Political   Life.  —  With  regard   to  social  life 
the   Middle   colonies   were   somewhat    less    sober   than    New 
England.     Dancing  parties,  corn-huskings,  and  the  like  fes 
tivities  diverted  the   country  people;   while   the   towns   had 
races,  cock-fights,  and  other  similar  amusements  of  the  period. 
In  point  of  elegance  and  fashion,  New  York  was  inferior  to 
Boston,  but  was  superior  to  Philadelphia.     The  English  pre 
dominated  in  the  towns ;  but  the  Dutch,  with  their  sobriety, 
neatness,  and  narrowness  of  life,  dominated  the  country  dis- 


66       END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.      [§87 

tricts,  which  did  not  extend  much  farther  than  Albany,  or, 
indeed,  far  away  from  the  Hudson  River.  The  settlers  of  the 
outlying  districts  in  both  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were 
rude  and  simple  in  their  manner  of  living  —  were,  in  fact,  our 
first  backwoodsmen.  Facilities  for  education  were  everywhere 
far  inferior  to  those  of  New  England,  although  one  or  two  good 
schools  existed  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  Religious 
influences  were  much  mixed,  owing  to  the  variety  of  creeds 
tolerated ;  but  Quaker  sobriety  was  almost  as  strong  as  Puri 
tan  rigor  in  suppressing  Sabbath-breaking  and  other  forms  of 
popular  license.  Politically,  the  Middle  colonies  were  not  so 
stable  and  well  governed  as  New  England.  In  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  taxes  were  heavy,  and  there  was  considerable 
discontent  against  the  colonial  officials  and  the  mother  coun 
try.  Rioting  at  elections  was  frequent  in  New  York.  The 
Quakers  were  naturally  more  peaceful ;  indeed,  their  reluctance 
to  bear  arms  partly  prevented  a  complete  union  of  the  colo 
nies  for  self-defense  against  the  Indians.  But  all  things  con 
sidered,  the  Middle  colonies  in  1700  were  in  a  prosperous 
condition,  and  had  laid  a  foundation  for  the  immense  wealth 
and  population  they  possess  to-day. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF  THE   SOUTHERN   COLONIES. 

87.  Mode  of  Life.  —  The  aristocracy  of  the  Southern  colo 
nies  was  based  partly  on  birth,  partly  on  slavery,  and  existed 
chiefly  because  of  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  of  the  fact  that 
the  numerous  waterways  encouraged  a  system  of  practically 
independent  plantations.  In  many  cases  ocean-going  ships 
could  come  up  to  private  wharves,  be  there  loaded  with  tobacco, 
indigo,  rice,  and  other  commodities,  carry  these  to  England, 
and  return  laden  with  manufactured  articles  required  by  the 
planters.  It  followed  that  retail  trades  and  manufactures  and 
all  save  minor  handicrafts  were  practically  non-existent  in  the 
South.  Towns  were  hardly  to  be  found.  Jamestown  was 
the  seat  of  government  in  Virginia,  and  was  resorted  to  by 
the  wealthier  planters  for  the  purposes  of  fashion  and  pleas- 


§88]     CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES.      67 

lire,  Williamsburg  taking  its  place  later ;  but  for  a  long  time 
Charleston  was  the  only  settlement  in  the  South  that  exhibited 
real  town  life.  Another  result  of  the  independent  plantation 
system  was  the  paucity  of  schools,  as  well  as  the  feeble  state  of 
the  Church.  The  richer  planters  employed  private  tutors,  and 
often  sent  their  sons  to  English  universities.  The  middle  and 
lower  classes  got  practically  no  education.  The  clergy,  except 
in  South  Carolina,  were,  as  a  rule,  illiterate  and  were  often 
immoral  in  conduct.  The  other  learned  professions  were  at  a 
low  ebb  also,  and  education  and  culture  were  almost  entirely 
confined  to  a  few  privileged  persons. 

88.  Social  Classes  in  the  South.  —  There  were  four  classes  of 
society,  separated  by  sharp  distinctions.  Lowest  of  all  came 
the  black  slaves,1  who  increased  rapidly  in  Virginia  after  1650, 
were  numerous  in  Maryland,  and  preponderant  in  South  Caro 
lina.  They  were,  on  the  whole,  fairly  well  treated,  though 
much  overworked  in  South  Carolina.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  a  very  severe  code  of  laws  with  regard  to 
them  came  into  existence ;  but  it  is  not  likely,  however,  that 
the  cruel  punishments  allowed  were  often  inflicted.  Above  the 
blacks  were  the  indented  white  servants,  who  frequently  came 
of  the  English  criminal  classes  and  were  treated  more  or  less 
harshly.  Then  came  the  small  farmers  and  mechanics,  who 
had  little  education,  were  fond  of  rough  sports,  and  were  some 
what  looked  down  on  by  the  planters.  They  possessed  sturdy 
English  virtues,  however,  and  were  jealous  of  their  independ 
ence.  The  highest  class,  the  planters,  were  often  gentlemen 
of  excellent  birth,  courteous  manners,  and  vigorous  qualities 
of  mind  and  heart.  Although  keeping  up  many  ties  with 
the  mother  country,  they  were  by  no  means  subservient  to  it, 
and  in  political  matters  often  resisted  the  colonial  governors. 
From  them  were  recruited  many  of  the  revolutionary  leaders. 

1  There  were  slaves  in  all  the  other  colonies,  and  the  institution  of  slavery 
was  regarded  by  most  persons  as  moral  and  legal ;  but  they  were  not  held  in 
great  numbers,  and  were  by  no  means  so  profitable  as  in  the  South. 


68       END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.      [§  89 

89.  Isolation  of  the  South.  —  Thus  we  see  that  there  was  noth 
ing  in  the  South  to  correspond  with  the  town  life  of  New  Eng 
land,  with  its  enterprise,  or  with  its  educational  and  religious 
solidarity.     There  was  nothing  to  correspond  with  the  thrift 
of  the  Middle  colonies.      Isolation  was  the  rule,  in  agricul 
ture,  commerce,  and  even  in  matters  of  administration.     The 
administrative  unit  was  the  large  county,  hence  local  govern 
ment  was  always  difficult  and  somewhat  inefficient.     Society 
in  many  respects  reproduced  feudal  aspects ;  but  this  lack  of 
social  solidarity  was  not  without  beneficial  results.     It  fostered 
a  love  of  independence,  a  fondness  for  manly  sports,  and  a  self- 
reliance  that  were  to  stand  the  people  in  good  stead  during  the 
trials  of  the  Revolution  and  of  the  Civil  War. 

90.  General  View  of  the  Colonists.  —  On  the  whole,  we  may  con 
clude  that  the  English  colonists  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  had  made  remarkable  progress.     They  had  secured 
firm  hold  of  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and 
had  absorbed  the  rival  settlements  of  the  Dutch  and  Swedes. 
They  had  pushed  the  Indians  back  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  natioual  wealth  in  agriculture,  manufacturing,  fishing,  and 
commerce.     They  had  developed  a  spirit  of  independence  and 
of  moral  sobriety,  and  had  not  allowed  their  intellectual  powers 
to  decline.      They  were  increasing  rapidly  in  numbers,  and 
only  their  French  and  Indian  foes  remained  to  dispute  their 
possession  of  the  central  portion  of  the  continent. 


REFERENCES. — See  especially  Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  chaps,  v., 
viii.,  and  x.  Add  to  preceding  bibliography  :  M.  C.  Tyler,  History  of 
American  Literature,  Vols.  I.  and  II.  ;  C.  F.  Richardson,  History  of 
American  Literature;  B.  Wendell,  Cotton  Mather  ("Makers  of  Amer- 
ica")  ;  B.  Wendell,  Literary  History  of  America;  E.  A.  and  G.  L. 
Duyckinck,  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,  Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER   V. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   COLONIES,  1690-1765. 

COLONIAL  DISPUTES. 

91.  Character  of  the  Period.  —  During   the  first  quarter,  or 
indeed  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  colonial  his 
tory   contains  few  salient  features  apart  from  boundary  dis 
putes,  quarrels  with  royal  governors,  and  struggles  with  the 
French  and  Indians.     There  was  a  steady  growth  in  numbers, 
which  may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  from  the  first  to  the 
middle  of  the  century  New  England  increased  fourfold,  the 
Middle  colonies  sixfold,  and  the  Southern  colonies  sevenfold  in 
population.     Wealth  and  general  prosperity  increased  in  fair 
proportion  also.     During  such  a  period  of   development   his 
torians  rarely  find  events  of  a  startling  or  romantic  nature  to 
chronicle. 

92.  Charters  in  Danger.  —  The  people  of  the  various  colonies 
were,  however,  disturbed  from  time  to  time  by  political  events 
that  were  of  considerable  importance  to  them,  as,  for  instance, 
by  the  attacks  made  in  England  upon  their  charters.     These 
were  in  the  main  successfully  warded  off  by  the  colonial  agents 
in  London,  but  they  sometimes  became  serious.     For  example, 
it  was  proposed  in  1715  to  annex  Rhode   Island   and   Con 
necticut,  which  had  liberal  charters,  to  the  royal  colony  of  New 
Hampshire,  which  had  no  charter  at  all.     In  the  case  of  the 
Carolinas,   the   proprietors,   when  threatened  with  a  writ   of 
quo  warranto  on  account  of  popular  disturbances  in  their  terri 
tories,  surrendered  their  charters  to  the  Crown  for  a  compen 
sation.     Thereafter  royal  governors  were  sent  to  both  South 

69 


70  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   COLONIES,   1690-1765.         [§  93 

and  North  Carolina,  the  latter  province  having  to  that  time 
been  under  a  deputy  of  the  governor  of  the  former. 

93.  Boundary  Disputes.  —  Boundary  disputes  were  very  bitter 
between  the  colonies  and  continued,  after  they  became  states, 
into  the  nineteenth  century.     Connecticut  especially  was  in 
volved  in  frequent  quarrels  with  her  neighbors.     New  York 
and  New  Hampshire  also  had  disputes  with  regard  to  the 
territory  adjoining  Lake  Champlain.     Some  of  the  settlers  of 
this  region  revolted  just  before  the  Revolution,  in  order  to 
establish  an  independent  government,  which  was  recognized  in 
1777  as  the  state  of  Vermont.     Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
likewise  had  a  dispute,  which  was  settled  by  the  drawing  of 
the  famous  Mason  and  Dixon  Line  (1763-1767).     To  the  south 
there  were  boundary  disputes  with  Spain  and  to  the  west  with 
France.     The  latter  were  to  lead  to  serious  results. 

94.  Quarrels  with  Governors. — The  disputes  between  the  colo 
nies  and  their  governors  were  numerous  and  bitter.    Frequently 
the  point  at  issue  touched  upon  the  payment  of  a  regular 
salary  to  the  governor  by  the  colony,  the  colonists  preferring 
to  keep  him  dependent  upon  them  by  voting  him  supplies  at 
irregular  intervals.      They  argued  correctly  that  fixed   pay 
ments  would  be  equivalent  to  a  tax  levied  by  the  Crown,  and 
they  held  out  bravely,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  against  all 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  English  government  to  force  them 
to  submit.     We  have  already  seen  that  some  disagreements 
were  based  upon  the  corruption  of  governors,  their  dealings  with 
pirates,  and  their  general'  tendency  to  tyranny.     Sometimes, 
as  in  South  Carolina  after  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  gov 
ernor  would  oppose  a  pernicious  policy  like  the  rash  issuing 
of  paper  money,  and  would  thus  incur  popular  displeasure. 
Or   he   would   become   unpopular   merely  as   the   instrument 
through   which   the    English   government  or   the   proprietors 
endeavored  to  carry  out  some  obnoxious  measure.     Religious 
persecution  of  dissenters,  when  attempted  by  the   governor, 
was  sure  to  earn  him  hatred  in  all  quarters,  as  in  the  case  of 


§96]  VIRGINIA   ANt>   GEORGIA.  71 

Lord  Cornbury  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  (1702-1708). 
Probably  the  disputes  carried  on  by  the  Pennsylvanians  against 
their  executives  over  questions  of  taxation,  etc.,  were  more 
heated  than  those  of  any  other  colony. 

VIRGINIA   AND   GEORGIA. 

95.  A  Successful  Governor.  —  There  was,  however,  at  least 
one  thoroughly  honest  and  efficient  governor.     This  was  Alex 
ander  Spotswood,  who  came  out  in  1710  to  Virginia.     He  was 
a  bluff,  energetic  soldier,  who  had  been  wounded  at  Blenheim. 
His  coming  was  especially  gratifying  to  the  Virginians,  since 
he  brought  them   the   long-craved   privileges   of   the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus.     But  even  Spotswood  found  it  difficult  to  ex 
tort  money  from  the  Burgesses  in  order  to  prepare  for  defenses 
against  an  expected  French  invasion.     He  did  not,  however, 
allow  this  opposition  to  render  him  indifferent  to  the  interests 
of  the  colony.     He  sought  especially  to  develop  its  mineral 
resources,  and  caused  blast  furnaces  to  be  erected,  —  the  first  in 
the  colonies.     He  also  imported  Germans  to  develop  the  vine 
yards,  which  were  necessary  to  his  scheme  for  making  Virginia 
a  wine-producing  country.     He  furthermore  showed  his  inter 
est  in  the  Indians  by  establishing  a  school  mission. 

96.  The  Crossing  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains.  —  The  most 
memorable   event  connected  with   Governor   Spots  wood's  ad 
ministration  is  his  romantic  expedition  across  the  Blue  Ridge. 
Little  or  nothing  was  known  of  the  beautiful  valley  beyond 
these  mountains.     Spotswood  set  out  in  August,  1716,  with  a 
large  cavalcade,  well  furnished  with  hunting  equipments,  and, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  times,  with  a  quantity  and 
variety  of  liquors  that  would  now  be  thought  excessive.     It 
was  a  good  deal  of  a  frolic ;  but  it  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
the  splendid  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  to  which  river  the  gov 
ernor  gave  the  rather  inappropriate  name  of  the  Euphrates. 
This  region  was  destined  soon  to  be  settled  by  thrifty  German 
colonists,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  considered  the  garden  spot 


72          DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  COLONIES,   1690-1765.        [§  97 

of  Virginia.1  Spotswood  commemorated  his  expedition  by  pre 
senting  his  companions  with  small  golden  horseshoes  set  with 
jewels.  He  had  to  pay  for  these  himself,  since  King  George  I. 
was  probably  not  anxious  to  encourage  even  such  worthy 
colonial  orders  of  knighthood  as  the  "  Knights  of  the  Golden 
Horseshoe."  The  king  thought,  perhaps,  that  his  trusty  ser 
vant  did  him  a  better 
service  when  two  years 
later  he  sent  out  two 
armed  ships,  which  con 
quered  and  rid  the  colo 
nies  of  the  notorious 
pirate  John  Theach, 
otherwise  known  as 
"Blackbeard." 

97.  The  Colonization 
of  Georgia.  —  The  coun 
try  between  the  Savan 
nah  River  and  the  St. 
John's  River  in  Flor 
ida,  was  claimed  by  the 
English ;  and  when  the 
Carolinas  became  royal 
provinces,  this  region 

was  reserved  as  crown 
JAMES  OGLETHORPE. 

land.    It  soon  attracted 

the  attention  of  a  noble-minded  Englishman,  James  Ogle- 
thorpe.2  He  conceived  the  idea  that  it  would  be  an  excel 
lent  place  in  which  to  establish  a  colony  to  be  composed  of 
such  persons  as  needed  a  new  chance  in  life  after  having  been 

1  Some  of  the  most  interesting  operations  of  the  Civil  War  took  place 
within  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

2  Born  in  1698 ;  died,  1785.    Officer  of  the  British  army ;  received  grant,  which 
he  named  Georgia,  in  1732 ;  founded  Savannah  in  1733 ;  returned  twice  to  Eng 
land,  and  had  a  somewhat  unsuccessful  military  and  naval  career ;  gave  up  the 
charter  to  the  Crown  in  1752,  nine  years  after  finally  leaving  America. 


^FRENCH    EXPLORATIONS 
\      AND    SETTLEMENTS 


S  Marquette  and  Joliet's  Route,  (J6?3) 

LaSalle's  Route  to  Ft.Crevecceur 
and  return,  (/679) 


l,aSalleJs  Route  from  Ft.St.Louls 
to  the  Gulf,  (f682) 

Hennepin's  Route.  (1680) 


To  face  p.  73. 


FRENCH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CLAIMS.  73 

released  from  the  then  crowded  debtor  prisons  of  England. 
He  secured  the  aid  of  a  company  in  establishing  his  proposed 
colony,  which  was  also  intended  to  serve  as  a  bulwark  against 
the  Spanish  colony  of  St.  Augustine  and  as  an  important  out 
post  of  the  fur  trade.  The  colony  was  styled  Georgia,  in  honor 
of  King  George  II.  The  company  of  proprietors  were  very 
liberal ;  they  prohibited  slavery  and  religious  persecution,  and 
provided  that  none  of  their  own  number  should  hold  a  salaried 
office.  Oglethorpe  came  out  in  November,  1732,  and  early  in 
the  following  year  founded  the  town  of  Savannah.  He  treated 
the  Indians  well  and  made  a  firm  alliance  with  them.  In  1734 
a  number  of  German  settlers  arrived  and  added  much  stability 
to  the  colony.  This  same  year  Augusta  was  founded  as  an 
armed  trading-post,  and  soon  became  the  center  of  a  large  fur 
traffic.  The  English  debtors,  however,  were  not  the  best  of 
colonists,  and  the  company  was  wise  enough  to  induce  more 
Germans  and  some  Scotch  Highlanders  to  seek  the  colony. 
After  this  the  growth  of  Georgia  was  certain,  but  very  slow  ; 
for  even  so  benevolent  an  enterprise  could  not  escape  internal 
discontent  and  friction,  due  largely  to  the  thriftless  character 
of  the  English  beneficiaries. 

FRENCH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CLAIMS. 

98.  French  Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  —  From  the 
beginning,  the  French  colonists  settled  in  Acadia l  and  New 
France 2  succeeded  in  making  friends  with  the  Indians,  to  an 
extent  rarely  equaled  by  the  English.  But  friendship  with 
the  Hurons  and  Algonquins  involved  enmity  with  the  enemies 
of  the  latter,  the  Iroquois.  This  in  turn  meant  that  the  French 
would  have  great  difficulty  in  penetrating  New  York.  It  also 
meant  that  their  explorations  would  at  first  penetrate  the 
western  region  bordered  by  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Michigan. 

1  The  region  comprising  what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
part  of  Maine. 

2  The  region  along  the  St.  Lawrence  of  which  Montreal  and  Quebec  have 
always  been  the  two  chief  centers. 


74          DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   COLONIES,   1690-1766.        [§09 

In  this  region  they  heard  rumors  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver, 
and  in  1673  a  Jesuit  priest,  Fere  Marquette,  and  Louis  Joliet, 
a  trader,  undertook  to  look  for  it.  With  incomparable  reso 
lution  Marquette  surmounted  every  difficulty,  and  finally  with 
his  companions  floated  down  the  Wisconsin  River  into  the 
mighty  Mississippi,  which  they  followed  to  a  point  below  the 

Arkansas.  Then  they 
made  their  arduous  way 
back,  having  accom 
plished  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  voyages  of 
exploration  known  in 
history. 

99.  The  Explorations 
of  La  Salle.  —  Their  work 
was  finished  ten  years 
later  by  Robert  de  la 
Salle,1  who  with  his 
companions  crossed  from 
Lake  Erie  to  the  Illinois 
lliver  and,  after  endur 
ing  many  hardships, 
tracked  the  Mississippi 
southward  to  the  Gulf 

of  Mexico.  There,  taking  possession  of  the  region  for  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  La  Salle  named  it  Louisiana  in  his  honor.  He 
had  been  about  four  years  at  his  work,  in  which  he  had 
shown  a  courage  that  has  made  him  memorable.  Two  years 

1  French  explorer;  born,  1643;  died,  1687.  Migrated  to  Canada  in  1666; 
explored  westward  as  far  as  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Illinois  River ;  was  in 
France  in  1677,  but  at  once  returned,  and,  passing  via  Niagara,  ascended  the 
lakes  to  Mackinaw,  finally  (1679)  exploring  the  Illinois  River  beyond  Peoria  ; 
descended  in  a  canoe  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers  to  the  Gulf  in  1682 ; 
organized  a  new  expedition  in  1684;  sailed  from  France  for  the  Mississippi, 
but  landed  by  mistake  at  Matagorda  Bay ;  murdered  by  his  followers  at  some 
unknown  spot  in  Texas. 


§  101]  WARS   WITH  THE   FRENCH.  75 

later,  in  1684,  he  sailed  from  France  to  plant  a  colony 
on  the  Mississippi;  but,  missing  its  mouth,  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Texas.  Here  a  fort  was  built,  and  from  its  occupa 
tion  France  got  her  claim  to  the  territory  as  far  as  the  Rio 
Grande.  La  Salle  and  his  party,  after  suffering  many  hard 
ships,  determined  to  separate  into  two  bands.  The  party  led 
by  La  Salle  murdered  their  brave  commander,  and  finally 
reached  the  Illinois  River. 

100.  French  and  English  Claims.  —  Thus  France,  through  the 
labors  of  her  loyal  subjects,  had  established  a  claim  to  an 
enormous  region  stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Law 
rence,  around  the  English  colonies,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  and  thence  to  the  Eio  Grande.     East  and  west  the 
boundaries  were   practically   the   Alleghany  and   the   Kocky 
mountains.     But  these  claims  were  sure  to  be  resisted,  for  the 
charters  of  the  English  colonies  gave  them  almost  indefinite 
rights   to  the  westward,  and  they  were  growing  too  fast  to 
be  long  cooped  up  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Atlantic. 
Before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  struggle  for 
predominance  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  had  begun,  and  in  about 
seventy-five  years  France  had  been  stripped  of  all  the  posses 
sions  which  had  been  secured  for  her  by  the  intrepidity  and 
foresight  of  leaders  who  had  often  been  but  ill-supported  by 
their  king  and  government. 

WARS   WITH   THE  FRENCH. 

101.  King  William's  War  (1690-1697).  —  The  colonial  wars 
against  the  French  for  the  possession  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Alleghanies  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  English  sovereigns 
reigning  at  the  time  of  hostilities ;  but  they  practically  coincide 
with  important  European  wars.     For  example,  the  first  break 
in  the  American  struggle  corresponded  with  the  famous  Peace 
of  Ryswick  (1697).     Indeed,  throughout  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury  colonial  questions  formed  a  most  important  factor  in  the 
numerous  and  destructive  wars  waged  in  Europe.     The  French 


76  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.      [§102 

early  began  to  see  that  war  must  soon  arise  between  the  English 
colonists  and  their  own,  and  about  the  time  of  the  revolution 
which  brought  in  William  and  Mary  (1689),  they 'sent  over  the 
able  Count  Frontenac  with  instructions  to  overrun  New  York. 
At  first  he  had  to  beat  off  the  Iroquois ;  but  in  1690  he  began 
that  long  series  of  horrible  raids,  conducted  by  mixed  bands  of 
French  and  Indians,  which  gives  such  a  bloody  tinge  to  the 
annals  of  the  times  and  accounts  for  the  hatred  cherished  for 
both  their  Christian  and  their  savage  enemies  by  the  English 
colonists.  First  it  was  Schenectady,  New  York,  that  was  burned 
and  laid  waste ;  then  Salmon  Falls,  New  Hampshire ;  then 
Fort  Loyal  (now  Portland,  Maine)  ;  then  Exeter,  New  Hamp 
shire.  No  one  knew  where  the  blow  might  fall  next.  Panic 
reigned  among  the  colonies,  and  a  meeting  of  delegates  from 
several  of  them  was  held  at  Albany,  in  February,  1690,  to  dis 
cuss  the  situation  (§  66).  A  threefold  attack  on  the  French 
possessions  was  planned,  but  only  that  against  Port  Eoyal  in 
Acadia,  led  by  Sir  William  Phips,  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
was  successful.  Having  destroyed  Port  Eoyal,  he  attempted 
to  take  Quebec,  while  another  body  of  troops  attacked  Montreal. 
Both  expeditions  were  failures,  and,  as  a  result,  the  French 
ravages  continued  until  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697. 
Neither  side  had  gained  ground,  but  the  English  had  suffered 
terribly.  Massacres  of  the  inhabitants  of  frontier  towns  made 
life  a  terror  to  the  pioneers,  and  in  1697  the  invaders  actually 
sacked  Haverhill,  not  thirty  miles  from  Boston. 

102.  Queen  Anne's  War  (1702-1713).  —  Peace  did  not  last 
long,  for  William  III.  was  resolute  in  opposing  the  aggressions 
of  Louis  XIV.  His  policy  was  carried  on  after  his  death  (in 
1702)  by  the  advisers  of  his  successor,  Queen  Anne,  chief 
among  whom  was  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough,  the  vic 
tor  of  Blenheim.  Massacres  soon  began  again  in  New  Eng 
land.  Port  Eoyal  was  attacked  unsuccessfully  in  1707  and 
successfully  in  1710,  and  another  expedition  to  Quebec  came 
to  nothing.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  put  a  stop  to 


103] 


WARS  WITH  THE  FRENCH. 


77 


hostilities,  and  this  time  the  English  diplomats  were  suf 
ficiently  resolute  to  retain  Acadia.  Thenceforth  Port  Koyal, 
or  Annapolis,  as  it  was  now  named  in  honor  of  the  queen,  was 
held  by  the  English. 

103.  Colonies  at  Peace :  the  "  Great  Awakening."  —  Peace  was 
to  last  for  thirty  years,  a  period  which  the  French  improved  by 
exploring  expeditions  and 
by  the  building  of  forts 
to  secure  the  great  region 
watered  by  the  Mississippi. 
Nor  did  the  English  lose 
sight  of  the  vast  interests 
at  stake.  They  did  per 
haps  the  best  thing  to  be 
done  under  the  circum 
stances —  they  waited  and 
grew  strong  in  numbers 
and  wealth,  filling  out  as 
well  as  possible  their  more 
compact  territory.  They 
experienced  also  a  spiritual 
awakening  that  must  have 
strengthened  the  popular 
character  in  many  ways. 

This  was  the  "  Great  Awakening  "  which,  beginning  early  in  the 
century,  became  especially  potent  in  1734  under  the  preaching  of 
the  famous  Jonathan  Edwards1  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts. 
The  religious  enthusiasm  spread  far  and  wide,  and  after  a  snort 
lull,  began,  in  1739-1740,  to  flame  out  afresh  under  the  inspira 
tion  of  the  great  revivalist,  George  Whitefield.  This  eloquent 
English  preacher  went  to  Georgia  to  join  John  and  Charles  Wes- 

1  Metaphysician  and  theologian  ;  born  in  Connecticut,  1703 ;  died,  President 
of  Princeton  College,  in  1758.  Became  pastor  of  Congregational  church  in 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  1727,  where  he  remained  till  1750;  preached  to 
Indians  at  Stockhridge  from  1751  to  1758 ;  wrote  many  works,  of  which  Inquiry 
into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will  is  the  most  noted. 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS. 


78  DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.      [§  104 

ley,  and  there  carried  on  the  religious  work  which  the  brothers 
had  begun.  Whitefield  preached  throughout  the  colonies, 
stirring  men  everywhere,  and  undoubtedly  producing  many 
good  results  in  spite  of  the  evil  consequences  which  a  period 
of  excitement  always  leaves  behind  it. 

104.  Establishment   of   French   Forts.  —  After  the  Peace  of 
Ryswick,    Pierre   le   Moyne,    Sieur  d'lberville,  established  a 
French  settlement  at  Biloxi,  in  the  present  state  of  Mississippi. 
La  Salle  had  previously  built  Fort  St.  Louis  on  the  Illinois 
River,  and  it  was  now  the  French  policy  to  fill  up  the  territory 
between  these  two  points  with  a  chain  of  forts  and  settlements. 
Mobile  was   founded   in   1702,  New   Orleans   in   1718.     The 
founder  of  New  Orleans  was  Iberville's  brother,  Bienville.     At 
the  other  end  of  the  line  Detroit  was  founded  in  1701,  Fort 
Niagara  was  built  in  1726,  and  Crown  Point  was  erected  on 
Lake  Champlain  in  1731.     In  order  that  Acadia  might  be  won 
back  if  possible,  the  strong  fortress  of  Louisburg  was  erected 
on  Cape  Breton  Island. 

105.  King  George's   War  (1744-1748).  —  In   1744   the  war 
known  in  Europe  as  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  and 
in  America  as  King  George's  War,  was  begun  by  a  successful 
French  attack  on  an  English  post  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  by  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  take  Annapolis.      Great  efforts  were 
now  made  by  Governor  Shirley  of  Massachusetts  to  save  Nova 
Scotia.     He  applied  to  the  English  king,  but  his  main  reliance 
was  upon  Massachusetts  and  her  sister  colonies  of  New  Eng 
land.      In  the  spring  of  1745,  just   one  year  after  the  com 
mencement  of  hostilities,  a  large  expedition  set  out  to  capture 
Louisburg,  and  after  a  siege  of  six  weeks  took  that  redoubtable 
fortress.     The  victory  was  celebrated  in  many  long  and  sincere 
prayers  of  thanksgiving  and  in  some  remarkably  bad  poetry. 
But  the  English  government  was  so  blind  to  the  importance  of 
the  interest  at  stake  as  to  restore  Louisburg  to  the  French  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  in  1748. 


§106]  WARS   WITH   THE   FRENCH.  79 

106.  The  French  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  — The  French  now 
turned  their  attention  to  the  task  of  securing  the  region 
watered  by  the  Ohio  Kiver.  In  1749  Celoronde  Bienville, 
under  orders  of  the  governor  of  Canada,  by  means  of  canoe 
voyages  and  portages, 
reached  Chautauqua  Lake 
and  thence  the  Allegheny 
Kiver,  where  formal  posses 
sion  of  the  country  was 
taken  in  the  name  of  Louis 
XV.  of  France.  Leaden 
plates  with  inscriptions  as 
serting  the  French  claim 
were  interred  at  various 
points  along  the  Ohio  and 
its  tributaries.  Three  years 
later  a  chain  of  forts  was 
begun  along  the  route  taken 
by  Bieiiville,the  first  erected 
being  that  of  Presque  Isle, 

near  the  present  city  of  Erie. 

m,  „     ,,  SIEUB  DE  BIENVILLE. 

Inese    movements    of    the 

French  alarmed  the  English  colonists  greatly,  and,  most  of  all, 
Governor  Dinwiddie  of  Virginia.  This  executive  was  interested 
in  an  American  scheme  for  settling  the  Ohio  region,  through  the 
agency  of  the  so-called  Ohio  Company,  and  his  colony  claimed 
the  country  now  threatened  by  the  French.  As  soon  as  he 
heard  of  the  new  fort,  he  dispatched  George  Washington  to 
demand  the  withdrawal  of  the  French.  Washington  was  just 
twenty-one  years  old,  but  he  had  seen  life  as  a  surveyor  in  the 
frontier  counties  of  Virginia,  and  had  learned  to  command 
men  and  to  understand  Indian  character. 


1  Born,  1680;  died,  1765.  Accompanied  Iberville  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  and  became  director  of  the  colony  of  Louisiana  in  1701;  in  1713 
was  appointed  lieutenant  governor;  founded  the  city  of  New  Orleans;  was 
removed  from  office  in  1720 ;  reappointed  in  1733 ;  returned  to  France  in  1743. 


80  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.       [§  107 

107.  Washington  in  the  West.  — Washington,  who  was  already 
an  adjutant  general,  took  with  him  only  a  few  companions  on 
his  winter  journey  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  miles  through 
the  perilous  wilderness.     He  braved  numerous  dangers,  which 
he  set  down  modestly  in  a  journal  that  is   still   preserved. 
His  training  as  a  surveyor  enabled  him  to  pick  out  as  a  proper 
site  for  a  fort  the  spot  at  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny  and 
Monongahela  rivers  where  Fort  Duquesne  was  shortly  after 
ward  built  by  the  French,  and  where  Pittsburg  now  stands. 
He    reached    Fort   Le   Boeuf    (near    the    present   Waterford, 
Pennsylvania)  and  gave  his  letter  to  the  French  commandant. 
The  latter  promised  to  send  it  on  to  the  governor  of  Canada, 
but   continued   to   occupy   the   fort.     On   his   return  journey 
Washington  nearly  lost  his  life  while  attempting  to  cross  the 
Monongahela  on  a  raft ;  but  he  finally  reached  Williamsburg 
in  safety,  having  been  absent  only  eleven  weeks. 

108.  Founding  of  Fort  Duquesne. — Dinwiddie  determined  to 
take  possession  of  the  Forks  of  the  Ohio  at  once.      William 
Trent,  a  trader,  and  some  militia  were  hurried  forward   and 
began  the  erection  of  a  fort.     While  the  Virginians  were  thus 
occupied,  and  in  the  absence  of  their  leader,  a  party  of  French 
men  and  Indians  descended  upon  them  and  they  were  forced  to 
surrender,  their  conquerors  finishing  the  fort   and  naming  it 
after  Duquesne,  the  governor  of  Canada. 

109.  Washington  at  Fort  Necessity.  —  Meanwhile  great  prep 
arations  had  been  made  in  Virginia.    Washington,  now  lieuten 
ant  colonel,  set  out  with  a  few  troops  to  aid  Trent,  but  heard  of 
the  surrender  shortly  after  starting.     He  would  not  go  back, 
but  pushed  on  into  southwestern  Pennsylvania,  and  there  at  a 
place  called  Great  Meadows  began  a  fort.     Having  been  warned 
of  the  approach  of  a  party  of  French,  he  attacked  them  suddenly 
and  completely  routed  them.     Then  he  pushed  on  to  the  Ohio, 
but  on  learning  that  the  French  were  advancing  in  numbers, 
finally  fell  back  on  his  stockade,  which  he  had  called  Fort 
Necessity.     Here  the  French  and  Indians  attacked  him  vigor- 


§  111]  WARS   WITH  THE  FRENCH.  81 

ously,  and  after  a  brave  struggle  he  surrendered  honorably  on 
July  4,  1754. 

110.  The   French   and  Indian  War  (1754-1763).  —  This  was 
practically    the   beginning   of   what   is   generally   called    the 
French  and  Indian  War,  which  nearly  coincides  with  the  Seven 
Years'  War  in  Europe.     Both  sides  made  extensive  prepara 
tions,  for  the  fate  of  a  continent  was  now  plainly  seen  to  be 
in  the  balance.     A  congress  of  delegates  from  the  colonies  met 
at  Albany  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  Iroquois,  and  here  (1754) 
Benjamin  Franklin  secured  the  adoption  of  a  plan  for  a  union  of 
the  colonies.     The  scheme  was  not  approved,  however,  when 
submitted  to  the  individual  colonies,  which  were  more  or  less 
jealous  of  their  privileges.     But  if  the  colonists  would  not  join 
to  repel  the  foe,  the  English  under  Pitt  were  determined  to 
do  their  best  to  drive  out  the  French,  not  foreseeing  that  as  a 
result  the  colonists,  freed  from  danger  at  home,  would  be  likely 
in  a  short  time  to  form  a  union  to  secure  independence.     They 
sent  out   one  of  their  ablest  officers,  Major  General  Edward 
Braddock,  and  an  elaborate  plan  of  campaign  was  determined 
on  at  a  conference  of  the   colonial   governors   assembled   by 
him  at  Alexandria,  Virginia.     Four   expeditions   were   to  be 
made:     one  to  be  directed  against  Fort  Crown  Point  in  New 
York,  and  thence  against  Quebec ;  another,  from  New  England, 
by  water,  against  the  French  possessions  in  the  northeast ;  the 
third,  from  Albany  against  Niagara;  the  fourth,  from  Fort 
Cumberland  in  Maryland  against  Fort  Duquesne. 

111.  Braddock's  Defeat.  —  General  Braddock  decided  to  take 
charge  of  the  last-named  expedition.     His  European  training 
had  not  qualified  him  to  command  in  an  unsettled  country,  and 
in  spite  of  his  personal  efforts  he  found  great  difficulty  in  mov 
ing  regular  troops  and  artillery  through  the  wilderness.     He 
could  hardly  have  moved  at  all  if  Franklin  had  not  persuaded  the 
Pennsylvania  farmers  to  hire  out  their  horses  and  wagons.     In 
June,  1755,  the  army  began  to  cut  its  way  through  the  forest.    All 
went  well,  though  slowly,  until  the  fort  was  nearly  reached,  when 


82  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.       [§  112 

suddenly  (July  9,  1755)  the  advanced  guard  came  upon  a  large 
body  of  French  and  Indians.  These  wily  foes  immediately 
adopted  border  habits  of  warfare,  and  picked  off  their  enemies 
from  behind  trees.  Braddock,  who  had  all  an  Englishman's 
contempt  for  colonial  ways,  pronounced  this  method  of  fighting 
barbarous,  and  would  not  allow  his  men  to  imitate  it.  He  in 
sisted  on  using  the  same  tactics  in  the  backwoods  of  America 
that  he  had  been  accustomed  to  employ  on  the  battlefields  of 
Europe.  There  could  be  but  one  result.  His  men  offered 
themselves  as  targets  until  so  many  were  killed  that  a  retreat 
had  to  be  sounded.  Even  this  would  have  been  unavailing  but 
for  the  fact  that  Washington,  who  was  present  as  an  aid-de 
camp  and  had  vigorously  protested  against  his  superior's  hard- 
headedness,  used  his  Virginians,  who  had  fought  their  enemies 
in  backwoods  fashion,  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  regulars. 
Washington  performed  many  feats  of  valor  throughout  the 
day,  and  had  several  narrow  escapes.  Braddock,  quite  as  brave, 
but  entirely  out  of  place  in  such  a  situation,  was  wounded  just 
before  the  retreat,  and  died  a  few  days  later.  Thus  the  most 
important  of  the  four  expeditions  was  a  failure. 

112.  Acadia,  Crown  Point,  and  Niagara.  —  The  second  expe 
dition  succeeded  in  dispersing  several  thousands  of  the  poor 
inhabitant?  of  Acadia  among  the  colonies  ; l  that  against  Crown 
Point  resulted  in  a  victory  over  the  French  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  George,  but  that  against  Niagara  did  not  even  reach  its 
destination. 

113.  Effects   of   Pitt's   Policy.  —  Although  there   had  been 
plenty  of  fighting  along  the  American  frontier,  war  was  not 
formally  declared   between   Great   Britain   and  France  until 
May,  1756.     The  French  sent  over  a  very  able  soldier,  the 
Marquis  of  Montcalm,2  who  was  quite  successful  for  about 

1  See  Longfellow's  Evangeline. 

2  Born,  1712;  died,  1759.    Fought  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession; 
was  sent  to  take  command  in  the  New  World  in  175G ;  took  Oswego  in  175G ; 
Fort  William  Henry  in  1757 ;  repulsed  Abercrombie's  greatly  superior  force  at 


§114] 


WARS   WITH  THE   FRENCH. 


83 


two  years,  and  might  have  been  altogether  so  but  for  the 
energy  and  foresight  of  that  great  English  statesman,  William 
Pitt.1  Pitt  saw  more  clearly 
than  any  other  man  of  his 
time  how  important  her 
colonial  empire  was  to  Great 
Britain,  and  how  it  could 
best  be  maintained  and  ex 
tended.  He  supported  Fred 
erick  the  Great  on  the 
Continent,  and  caused  re 
newed  efforts  to  be  made  in 
America  against  the  French. 
The  fourfold  attack  of  a  few 
years  before  was  again  tried, 
with  almost  complete  suc 
cess.  In  1758  Louisburg 
was  forced  to  surrender; 
Washington  captured  Fort 
Duquesne  (afterward  Fort 
Pitt),  and  Fort  Frontenac 
on  Lake  Ontario  was  destroyed.  Thus  the  Ohio  region  was  cut 
off  from  Quebec;  but  by  resisting  an  attack  on  Ticonderoga, 
Montcalm  managed  to  keep  the  French  forces  wedged  into 
New  York. 

114.  The  Fall  of  Quebec.  —  The  next  year  saw  the  practical 
conclusion  of  the  struggle,  in  the  fall  of  Quebec.  This  again 

Ticonderoga,  July  8,  1758 ;  was  met  and  defeated  by  Wolfe  at  Quebec,  Sep 
tember  13,  1759.  His  defeat  practically  transferred  America  from  the  French 
to  the  British. 

1  Born,  1708 ;  died,  1778.  Entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1735 ;  Secretary 
of  State  and  practically  Prime  Minister,  1756-1761 ;  laid  the  foundation  of  sub 
sequent  British  greatness  by  securing  the  defeat  of  the  French  in  America 
and  in  India;  resigned  in  1761  on  account  of  George  lll.'s  attitude  toward 
America;  gained  the  appellation  of  "The  Great  Commoner,"  through  his 
oratory  and  his  personal  influence ;  was  a  constant  advocate  of  the  Ameri 
can  cause ;  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1766  as  Earl  of  Chatham,  but  was 
subsequently  given  no  important  office. 


GENERAL  MONTCALM. 


84 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.       [§  114 


WILLIAM  PITT,  EARL  OF  CHATHAM.! 

was  due  indirectly  to  Pitt.     He  put  James  Wolfe2  in  com 
mand   of  an   expedition   against   Quebec,   by  way  of  the   St. 

1  From  an  old  print  in  the  possession  of  Frank  W.  Coburn,  of  Lexington, 
Mass. 

2  Born,  1727;  died,  1759.     Fought  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession; 
also  against  the  Young  Pretender  in  1745;  was  sent  as  brigadier  general  under 


§115] 


WARS  WITH  THE  FRENCH. 


Lawrence.  Wolfe  landed  with  his  troops  below  the  city,  which, 
rising  from  the  summit  of  its  precipitous  hill,  seemed  to  be 
impregnable.  But  the 
young  general  was 
dauntless.  He  per 
formed  the  extraor 
dinary  feat  of  passing 
up  the  river  under 
the  guns  of  Mont- 
calm,  and  landing  his 
troops.  During  the 
night  they  climbed 
the  clift's,  and  by 
dawn  were  ready  to 
offer  battle  on  the 
Plains  of  Abraham 
(September  13, 1759). 
The  conflict  was  hotly 
waged,  the  British 
eventually  securing 
the  victory,  at  the  GENERAL  WOLFF, 

cost   of   their   brave 

general,  whose  equally  brave  rival,  Montcalm,  was  also  killed. 
It  would  be  hard  to  estimate  the  consequences  of  this  battle. 

115.  The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763).— The  fall  of  Quebec  had 
been  preceded  by  the  capture  of  the  posts  of  Crown  Point  and 
Ticonderoga  held  by  the  French  within  New  York.  It  was 
followed  the  next  year  by  the  taking  of  Montreal.  This  practi 
cally  closed  the  war  in  America,  but  peace  was  not  declared 
until  1763,  when  the. Treaty  of  Paris  was  signed.  By  these 
Victories  and  the  peace  which  followed  them,  Great  Britain 

Amherst  to  the  siege  of  Louisburg  in  1758 ;  was  promoted  for  his  gallantry 
to  rank  of  major  general,  and  selected  by  Pitt  to  lead  the  British  against 
Montcalm  at  Quebec ;  was  victorious,  September  13,  1759,  in  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  assaults  ever  undertaken  ;  died  in  the  hour  of  victory.  The  event 
gave  Wolfe  immortal  fame,  and  secured  America  to  Great  Britain. 


86  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   COLONIES,    1690-1765.       [§  116 

obtained  Canada  and  Cape  Breton,  nearly  all  the  islands  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  all  the  territory  east  of  a  line  running 
down  the  middle  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver  to  a  point  just 
above  New  Orleans.  Spain  received  all  the  French  possessions 
west  of  this  line,  together  with  New  Orleans.  In  return  for 
Havana,  which  had  been  taken  by  the  English,  Spain  gave  up 
Florida  to  Great  Britain. 

116.  The  New  Provinces.  — The  newly  acquired  territory  was 
divided  into  three  provinces.  Canada  became  the  Province 
of  Quebec,  part  of  its  southern  boundary  line  limiting  the 
present  states  of  New  York,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Maine.  Florida  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  East  and 
West  Florida.  A  line  was  also  drawn  around  the  head  waters 
of  all  the  Atlantic-flowing  rivers  in  the  colonies,  and  the 
colonists  were  forbidden  to  settle  in  the  reserved  territory, 
which  was  set  apart  for  the  Indians.  To  defend  these  new 
provinces  it  was  resolved  to  maintain  within  their  borders  a 
force  of  ten  thousand  men,  who  were  to  be  supported  partly 
by  the  Crown  and  partly  by  the  colonies.  That  troops  were 
needed  was  proved  by  the  harassing  though  unsuccessful  siege 
of  Detroit  by  the  Indians,  led  by  Pontiac,  chief  of  the  Ottawas, 
in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1763. 


REFERENCES.  —  See  Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  chaps,  xiii.-xiv.  Add  to 
preceding  bibliography :  A.  V.  G.  Allen,  Jonathan  Edwards;  C.  C.  Jones, 
History  of  Georgia  (2  vols.);  C.  Gayarre',  History  of  Louisiana  (4  vols.); 
F.  Parkman,  Frontenac  and  New  France,  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of 
the  Great  West,  A  Half  Century  of  Conflict,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  A.  B. 
Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  chaps,  i.-ii.  ("  Epochs  of  American 
History  ")  ;  W.  M.  Sloane,  The  French  War  and  the  Revolution,  chaps. 
i.-ix.  («« American  History  Series")  ;  H.  C.  Lodge,  George  Washington, 
Vol.  I.,  chaps,  i.-iii.  ("American  Statesmen  Series")  ;  J.  Winsor,  The 
Mississippi  Basin;  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  The  Old  Northwest;  T.  Roosevelt, 
The  Winning  of  the  West,  Vol.  I.  ;  B.  Franklin,  Autobiography ;  J.  F. 
Cooper,  The  Deerslayer,  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  and  The  Pathfinder; 
Parkman's  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  contains  a  re'sume'  of  the  struggle  for 
Canada. 


IE  BRITISH  COLONIES 
in  1764 


To  face  p.  87. 


PART   II. 

PERIOD   OF   THE   REVOLUTION,  1765-1789. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CAUSES   OF   THE  REVOLUTION. 

GENERAL   CAUSES. 

117.  Tendencies  toward  Separation.  —  From  the  first  there 
were  certain  conditions  that  tended  to  force  the  American 
colonies  away  from  the  mother  country.  The  colonists,  espe 
cially  those  of  New  England,  had  very  generally  left  Great 
Britain  for  the  purpose  of  escaping  oppression ;  and,  after  the 
new  settlements  were  made,  the  conduct  of  the  home  govern 
ment  was  not  such  as  to  diminish  the  sense  of  wrong.  It  was 
less  than  thirty  years  after  the  landing  at  Plymouth  when  the 
first  of  the  "  Navigation  Acts "  marked  the  beginning  of  a 
policy  designed  to  encourage  British  at  the  expense  of  colo 
nial  commerce  (§  43),  and  in  1672  this  unwise  course  of  action 
was  carried  still  further.  A  law  was  passed  which  imposed 
the  same  duties  on  trade  between  one  colony  and  another  as  on 
trade  between  America  and  foreign  countries ;  and  to  enforce 
this  law,  customhouses  were  established  along  the  border 
lines  between  the  different  colonies.  This  .naturally  led  to  a 
constant  and  a  growing  friction  between  the  royal  governors 
who  had  to  collect  the  revenue,  and  the  colonists  who  had  to 
pay  it.  The  seventy -five  years  immediately  before  the  Seven 

87 


GEORGE  III. 


§  119]  GENERAL   CAUSES.  89 

Years'  War  are  full  of  instances  of  the  unfriendly  relations 
between  the  people  and  the  agents  of  the  home  government1 
(§  94). 

118.  Influence  of  the  Seven  Years*  War.  —  These  unfriendly 
relations  were  happily  interrupted  by  the  war  which  resulted 
in  the  fall  of  Quebec  and  the  transfer  of  Canada  from  the 
French  to  the  English.     The  fact  that  the  Americans  were 
united  with  the  English  in  a  common  cause  against  a  common 
enemy  drew  them  nearer  and  nearer  together.     In  the  prosecu 
tion  of  the  war  the  colonists  bore  a  prominent  and  honorable 
part,  and  at  its  close  they  everywhere  shared  in  the  general  re 
joicing.     In  this  spirit  old  Fort  Duquesne  was  given  the  name 
Pittsburg,  in  honor  of  the  great   statesman  who  had  accom 
plished  so   much  for  the    continent ;    and   the  legislature   of 
Massachusetts    voted    for    Westminster   Abbey    an   elaborate 
monument  to  Lord   Howe,  who  had  fallen   at    Ticonderoga. 
It  is  certain  that  a  new  spirit  of  loyalty  and  devotion  to  the 
mother  country  had  sprung  up,  when  in  1760,  one  year  after 
the  fall  of  Quebec,  George  III.,  then  a  young  man  of  twenty- 
two,  ascended  the  throne.     He  had  a  great  opportunity  to  con 
ciliate  the  colonists  and  to  increase  their  growing  affection ; 
but  he  defiantly  took  the  opposite  course. 

119.  George  III.2 --The  young  king  brought  to  the  throne 
a  very  unfortunate  mixture  of  good  and  bad  qualities.     He  had 

1  In  1743  the  governor  "of  New  York  wrote  that  he  "could  not  meet  the 
Assembly  without  subjecting  the  king's  authority  and  himself  to  contempt." 
The  governor  of  South  Carolina  wrote,  "  The  frame  of  the  civil  government 
is  unhinged ;  the  people  have  got  the  whole  administration  in  their  hands  ; 
the  Constitution  must  be  remodeled."     Governor  Sherlock  wrote  that  "  Vir 
ginia  had  nothing  more  at  heart  than  to  lessen  the  influence  of  the  crown." 
The  governor  of  New  Jersey  wrote  of  the  legislature  that  he  "  could  not 
bring  the  delegates  into  passing  measures  for  suppressing  the  wicked  spirit  of 
rebellion."     The  governor  of  Massachusetts  wrote  deploring  "the  mobbish 
turn  of  the  town,"  and  accounting  for  it  by  saying  that  "  the  management 
of  it  devolved  upon  the  popular  Assembly  in  their  town  meeting." 

2  Born  in  1738;  died,  1820.    Began  his  reign  with  an  obstinate  determination 
to  increase  the  power  of  the  Crown;  accepted  the  resignation  of  Pitt,  and 


90  CAUSES   OF  THE    REVOLUTION.  [§  120 

an  unblemished  character ;  he  had  a  strong  will  and  was  very 
conscientious  and  industrious ;  but  he  was  possessed  with  the 
idea  that  the  power  of  the  throne  should  be  greatly  strength 
ened,  and  that  all  opposition  to  such  increase  of  power  should 
be  put  down,  if  need  be,  by  main  force.  His  ambition  was  to 
restore  to  the  Crown  the  power  which  it  had  unlawfully  exer 
cised  before  the  two  English  revolutions  had  made  it  subor 
dinate  to  Parliament.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose 
he  committed  the  fatal  blunder  of  pushing  aside  the  great 
statesmen  he  found  in  office  and  of  surrounding  himself 
with  ministers  who  would  aid  him  in  carrying  out  his  own 
policy. 

120.  Independent  Spirit  among  the  Colonies.  —  Another  pecul 
iarity  of  the  situation  was  the  prevalence  of  a  decided  spirit  of 
independence  of  one  another  among  the  individual  colonies. 
No  effort  to  bring  them  together  for  purposes  of  common  action, 
even  against  the  Indians,  had  been  successful.  Even  Frank 
lin's  plan  in  1754  had  failed  to  unite  them  (§  110).  On  the 
contrary,  they  had  drawn  farther  and  farther  apart,  so  that 
a  very  intelligent  traveler,  who  had  visited  various  parts  of  the 
country,  wrote  in  1760,  "  Were  the  colonies  left  to  themselves, 
there  would  soon  be  civil  war  from  one  end  of  the  continent  to 
the  other."  And  James  Otis,  one  of  the  foremost  of  American 
patriots,  said  in  1765,  "  Were  the  colonies  left  to  themselves, 
to-morrow  America  would  be  a  mere  shambles  of  blood  and  con 
fusion  before  the  little  petty  states  could  be  united."  When 
George  III.  ascended  the  throne,  the  colonies  seemed  more 
afraid  of  one  another  than  they  were  of  England,  and  more 
likely  to  drift  into  separate  nationalities  like  those  of  Europe 
than  they  were  to  unite  in  a  common  effort  to  secure  independ 
ence  of  the  mother  country. 


called  weak  ministers  about  him ;  persisted  in  his  policy  of  taxing  America 
and  humiliating  the  colonies ;  reluctantly  consented  to  peace  in  1782;  became 
mentally  incompetent  during  the  later  years  of  his  life,  when  the  government 
was  transferred  to  his  son  as  Prince  Regent  (1811-1820). 


§123]  THE   QUESTION   OF   TAXATION.  91 

THE   QUESTION   OF  TAXATION. 

121.  Excuse  for  the  Policy. — The  energetic  and  fatal  policy 
of  the  Crown  first  showed  itself  in  a  determination  to  impose 
additional  taxes  on  the  Americans.      There  was  some  excuse 
for  this  policy.     The  Seven  Years'  War  had  been  carried  on  at 
heavy  expense,  and  a  large  debt  had  been  the  result.      The 
king  claimed  that  this  burden,  chiefly  incurred  in  an  effort  to 
protect  the  American  colonists,  should  be  borne,  in  large  part, 
by  the  colonists  themselves.     To  this  claim  the  colonists  might 
not  have  objected,  if  they  had  themselves  been  allowed  a  voice 
in  determining  their  share  of  the  tax.     But  the  English  insisted 
upon  determining  it  without  colonial  advice. 

122.  The   British   View   of  the   Matter.  —  In  the  course  of 
centuries  the  British  people  had  come  to  recognize  the  prin 
ciple,  "  No  taxation  without  representation."     But  in  the  time 
of  George  III.  representation,  even  in  England,  was  absurdly 
imperfect.     Boroughs  of  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  voters 
sometimes  sent  two  members  to  the  British  Parliament,  while 
some  large  towns  like  Manchester  and  Birmingham  sent  no 
representatives.     The  people  permitted  this  bad  state  of  affairs 
to  continue,  because  the  doctrine  was  held  that  every  member 
of  Parliament,  no  matter  by  whom  he  was  elected,  represented 
all  the  people  of  the  kingdom,  and  not  merely  those  who  had 
chosen  him.     According  to  this  theory,  the  colonies  were  as 
much  represented  in  Parliament  as  Manchester  and  Birming 
ham  ;  and  if  those  towns  could  be  taxed  without  direct  repre 
sentation,  there  appeared  no  just  reason  why  Massachusetts  and 
Virginia  and  the  other  colonies  should  complain  of  the  same 
method. 

123.  The  Colonial  View  of  the  Case.  —  But  the  colonists,  and  a 
small  but  very  influential  minority  in  Parliament,  took  another 
view  of  the  case.     Many  of  the  colonies  had  been  settled  by 
men  who  had  come  to  America  for  the  purpose  of  escaping 
from  a  system  which  they  regarded  as  unfair  and  tyrannical. 


92  CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION.  [§  124 

Two  revolutions  in  England  had  established  the  authority  of 
Parliament  as  against  the  individual  will  of  the  king,  but  the 
methods  of  representation  had  not  been  changed.  Indeed, 
they  were  worse  than  they  had  been  when  the  Puritans  came 
to  New  England,  more  than  a  hundred  years  before.  Dur 
ing  the  intervening  period  the  colonists  had  been  receiving  a 
liberal  education  in  matters  of  government.  In  their  town 
meetings  and  their  provincial  legislatures  they  had  had  to 
consider  and  decide  a  vast  number  of  subjects,  until  they  very 
naturally  came  to  think  they  could  understand  the  real  require 
ments  of  the  country  far  better  than  could  a  Parliament  three 
thousand  miles  away.  Some  of  the  colonial  writers  denied  that 
the  British  had  the  legal  right  to  tax  the  Americans,  while 
others  claimed  that,  even  if  they  had  the  legal  right,  an  enforce 
ment  of  that  right  would  be  contrary  to  the  whole  spirit  of 
English  liberty,  and  ought  to  be  resisted. 

124.  Folly  of  the  British  Government.  —  If  the  British  govern- 
'ment  had  been  wise,  these  differences  might  have  been  recon 
ciled  ;  but  George  III.  and  the  friends  whom  he  called  about 
him  could  not  see  why  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia 
should  object  to  taxation  while  Birmingham  and  Manchester 
did  not.     The  fact  remained,  however,  that  the  colonies  did 
object,  and  this  important  difference   any   wise   government 
would  have  seen  and  taken  into  account.     But  George  III. 
stubbornly   held   that   if  the   colonies   resisted   the   supreme 
authority  of  the  king  and  Parliament,  they  must  simply  be 
forced  into  obedience.     This  doctrine,  for  which  the  king,  and 
the  king  alone,  was  responsible,  was  the  fatal  error  that  cost 
Great  Britain  the  American  colonies. 

125.  Grenville's  Scheme  of  Taxation.  —  In  1764  Parliament, 
under    the    leadership    of    Lord    Grenville,    made    a  formal 
declaration  that  it   had   a  right   to   tax  the   colonies,  and  a 
year  later  proposed  to  raise  a  tax  by  what  was  known  as  the 
"  Stamp  Act."     This  provided  that  all  transactions,  to  be  law 
ful,  must  be  printed,  or  written,  on  paper   furnished  by  the 


§127] 


THE   RESISTANCE   OF   THE   COLONISTS. 


93 


PENNSYLVANIA  JOURNAL; 
WEEKL  V  ADVERTISER. 


EXPIRING:    In  Ropesof  a  Rdkrrectioinc LlTE again 


am  forry  to  be 

quaint  my  read- 
era  that  as  the 
Stamp  Act  is 
d  to  be  obligatory 
u.  after  ttej&W 
uing  (The 
Fiitnl  To-morrow),  The 
publif  her  of  this  paper,  un- 
aljle  to  bear  the  Uurthen, 
has  thought  it  expedient 
to  Hop  awhile,  in  order  to 


deliberate,  whether  any 

methods  can  be  found  lo 

elude  the  chains  forged  for 

us,  and  efcape  the  inl'up- 

nortiibl*  flavery,  which  it 

is   hoped,   from    the    laft 

repreieiitetion  now  m'nde 

'mft  that  act,  may  be 

•cted.     Mean  while  I 

ft    earneftly    Requeft 

ry    individual    of   my 

ifcribi-rs.      many      of 

whom  have  been  long  be 


hind  Hand,  that  they 
would  ^immediately  dif- 
charge  their  refpective 
Arrears,  that  I  may  be 
able,  not  only  to  fupport 
nyfelf  during  the.  Inter- 
ffll,  but  be  better  prepar- 
id  to  proceed  again  with 
his  Paper  whenever  an 
opening  for  that  purpofe 
appeal's,  which  I  hope- 
will  he  fnon. 
WILLIAM  BRADFORD. 


government  and  bearing  the  government  stamp.  Even 
newspapers  and  almanacs  had  to  be  printed  on  this  stamped 
paper.  The  cost  of 
the  stamps  varied  - 
from  a  few  cents 
to  fifty  or  sixty 
dollars.  Grenville 
thought  this  form 
of  taxation  would 
afford  no  chance  to 
evade  the  custom 
house,  no  tempta 
tion  to  smuggle, 
and  would  dispense 
with  all  disagree 
able  prying  into 
warehouses  and  pri 
vate  dwellings  in 

search  of  smuggled  goods.     It  was  believed  that  the  act  would 
enforce  itself  and  produce  a  large  revenue. 

126.  Spirit  of  the  Colonies. — This  belief  shows  how  gener 
ally  the  spirit  of  the  colonists  wa£  misunderstood.     Only  a  few 
of  the  greatest  and  wisest  of  the  British  statesmen  saw  the 
danger  in  the  policy  proposed.     These  men,  of  whom  Chatham 
and  Burke  were  the  leaders,  did  not  deny  the  constitutional 
right  of  Parliament  to  tax  all  British  subjects,  but  they  held 
that  it  would  be  madness  to  try  to  enforce  that  right,  since 
such  an  attempt  would  probably  result  in  the  loss  of  the  colo 
nies.     The  very  thing  they  feared  and  predicted  took  place. 

THE   EESISTANCE   OF   THE   COLONISTS. 

127.  Organization  for  Resistance.  —  The  colonists   instantly 
organized  a  general  resistance  to  the  tax.     Samuel  Adams *  and 

1  American  orator,  patriot,  and  agitator,  second  cousin  of  John  Adams ;  born, 
1722;  died,  1803.    Studied  for  a  time  at  Harvard  College;  was  unsuccessful  in 


94 


CAUSES  OF  THE   REVOLUTION. 


[§127 


James  Otis l  in  Massachusetts,  and  Patrick  Henry2  in  Virginia, 
were  the  most  active  of  the  colonial  leaders.  Adams  sent  let 
ters  in  every  direc 
tion  denouncing  the 
tax;  Otis  inflamed  the 
people  of  Boston  and 
the  vicinity  with  his 
essays  and  his  or 
atory  ;  and  Henry 
appealed  to  the  Virgin 
ians  with  overpowering 
eloquence.  A  general 
congress  representing 
the  colonies  met  in 
New  York,  October  7, 
1765,  and  passed  a 
series  of  resolutions 
denouncing  the  Stamp 
Act  as  a  violent  en 
croachment  on  the 
principle,  "  No  taxa- 
SAMUEL  ADAMS.  tion  without  repre- 

business ;  took  an  active  part  in  political  affairs ;  drew  up  Boston's  protest 
against  Grenville's  scheme  of  taxation  in  1764;  was  among  the  foremost 
speakers  and  writers  for  the  American  cause  from  1765  to  1774;  secured  from 
Hutchinson  the  removal  of  troops  in  1770 ;  member  of  Continental  Congress 
from  1774  to  1781 ;  voted  for  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1788,  though  strongly 
opposed  to  some  of  its  measures ;  was  lieutenant  governor  of  Massachusetts 
from  1789  to  1794,  and  governor  from  1794  to  1797. 

1  Revolutionary  patriot  and  orator;  born,  1728;  died,  1778.    Graduated  at 
Harvard,  1743;  opposed  the  Writs  of  Assistance,  in  a  celebrated  speech,  1761; 
published  Rights  of  the  Colonies  Vindicated,  in  1764;   moved  the  appoint 
ment  of  a  Stamp  Act  Congress  in  1765  and  was  one  of  the  delegates ;  made  a 
spirited  opposition  to  the  "Townshend  Acts";  was  severely  injured  by  some 
British  officers  in  17(i9,  and  was  insane  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

2  Born,  1736 ;  died,  1799.     After  failing  in  farming  and  trading,  he  became  a 
lawyer  in  1760 ;  in  1763  attracted  attention  by  a  noted  speech ;  entered  House 
of  Burgesses  in  1765,  where  he  uttered  his  famous  arraignment  of  the  Stamp 
Act;  assisted  in  organizing  committees  of  correspondence;  was  member  of 


§  128]  THE  RESISTANCE  OF  THE  COLONISTS.  95 

sentation."  Lawyers  agreed  not  to  regard  paper  as  made 
illegal  by  the  absence  of  a  stamp.  Newspapers  were  issued 
bearing  the  sign  of  a 
skull  and  crossbones 
in  place  of  a  stamp, 
and  boxes  of  stamps, 
on  their  arrival,  were 
seized  and  burned. 

128.  Repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act.  —  It  was 
not  long  before  even 
Grenville  was  con 
vinced  that  the  Stamp 
Act  was  a  failure.  As 
it  could  not  be  en 
forced,  and  as  it 
brought  very  little 
revenue,  it  was  re 
pealed  the  very  year 
after  it  had  become  a 
law.  There  are,  how 
ever,  two  ways  of  do- 

JAMES  OTIS. 
ing  an  act  demanded 

by  the  people :  to  do  it  with  a  tact  that  will  convey  the  largest 
amount  of  satisfaction;  or  to  do  it  with  some  reservation  or 
qualification  that  leaves  a  sting  behind  it.  The  latter  course 
was  taken  by  the  British  government,  which  said  in  substance : 
We  repeal  the  act,  because  its  enforcement  will  be  injurious  to 
our  commercial  interests,  but  in  doing  so  we  expressly  declare 
"the  supreme  right  of  Parliament  to  make  laws  and  statutes 
of  sufficient  force  and  validity  to  bind  the  colonies  and  the 
people  of  America  in  all  ways  whatever." 

First  Continental  Congress ;  gave  his  "  liberty  or  death  "  speech  in  1775 ;  was 
!;he  first  governor  of  Virginia  in  1776-1778 ;  also  governor,  1784  and  1785 ;  was 
a  strenuous  believer  in  states'  rights,  and  for  this  reason  opposed  the  adop 
tion  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 


CAUSES  OF  THE   REVOLUTION. 


[§129 


129.  The  Townshend  Acts.  —  The  "  Stamp  Act "  was  followed 
by  the  "  Townshend  Acts  "  in  1767.     One  of  these  acts  forbade 

the  colonies  to  trade 
with  the  West  Indies 
and  was  evidently 
designed  to  force  the 
Americans  to  buy 
West  Indian  goods  in 
Great  Britain.  An 
other  provided  for  a 
new  duty  on  all  im 
ports  of  glass,  paper, 
paints,  and  teas.  Still 
another,  and  the  most 
obnoxious  of  the 
Townshend  Acts,  was 
one  which  legalized 
"  Writs  of  Assist 
ance."  Such  writs 
had  formerly  been 
unlawfully  used  as  a  means  of  enforcing  the  statute  against 
smuggling.  These  papers,  by  being  signed  in  blank,  so  that 
names  could  be  inserted  at  the  convenience  of  the  officer,  pro- 
vided  a  means  by  which  any  sheriff  or  constable  could  enter  any 
man's  house  to  search  for  whatever  he  wanted  to  find. 

130.  Opposition  to  the  Townshend  Acts. — The   Townshend 
Acts  provoked  instant  opposition.     Associations  pledged  to  ab 
stain  from  using  any  of  the  articles  taxed,  were  formed  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  the  country.     The  Massachusetts  Assembly  sent  a 
circular  letter  to  the  other  colonies,  inviting  them  to  concerted 
resistance ;  but  this  letter  so  provoked  the  king  that  he  ordered: 
the  governor  of  Massachusetts  to  demand  that  the  Assembly  re 
scind  the  vote,  on  pain  of  dissolution.     The  Assembly  promptly 
refused,  whereupon  Governor  Bernard  promptly  dissolved  it 
Everywhere  a  similar  spirit  of  opposition  prevailed. 


PATRICK  HENRY. 


§  131]  THE   RESISTANCE   OF  THE   COLONISTS.  97 

131.  The  Farmer's  Letters.  —  The  next  year,  1768,  public  feel 
ing  was  greatly  intensified  and  united  by  what  were  known  as 
the  Farmer's  Letters 
—  a  remarkable  series 
of  papers  written  by 
John  Dickinson,1  a 
young  lawyer  of  Phil 
adelphia,  endowed 
with  wealth,  educa 
tion,  and  brilliant 
talents.  He  set  forth 
with  great  skill  the 
claims  of  the  colonies 
and  the  dangers  to 
the  liberties  of  the 
people  from  a  policy 
of  submission.  These 
letters  were  so  widely 
read  that  they  had  a 
vast  influence  in  shap 
ing  the  course  of  the 
colonies.2  JOHN  DICKINSON. 


iBorn,  1732;  died,  1808.  Became  a  Philadelphia  leader;  elected  to  the 
Colonial  Congress  in  1765;  published  the  famous  Letters  of  a  Pennsylvania 
Farmer,  in  1768;  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774;  wrote  the  two 
petitions  to  the  king  and  numerous  other  important  public  papers ;  opposed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  premature ;  served  loyally  in  the  army ; 
was  president  of  Delaware  in  1781 ;  president  of  Pennsylvania  from  1782  to 
1785 ;  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  in  1787,  and  a  strenuous  advocate  of 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

2 Dickinson  summed  up  his  argument  by  declaring:  "Let  these  truths  be 
indelibly  impressed  upon  the  mind :  that  we  cannot  be  happy  without  being 
free ;  that  we  cannot  be  free  without  being  secure  in  our  property ;  that  we 
cannot  be  secure  in  our  property,  if,  without  our  consent,  others  may  as  by 
right  take  it  away ;  that  duties  laid  for  the  sole  purpose  of  raising  money  are 
taxes;  that  attempts  to  lay  such  duties  should  be  instantly  and  fearlessly 
opposed  ;  that  such  opposition  can  never  be  effectual  unless  it  be  by  the  effort 
of  these  provinces." 


98 


CAUSES   OF  THE   REVOLUTION. 


[§132 


132.  The  Boston  Massacre.  —  In  1768  the  king  sent  over  two 
regiments  of  soldiers  to  Boston  for  the  special  purpose  of  en 
forcing  the  obnoxious 
acts.  In  March,  1770, 
there  was  a  spirited 
quarrel  between  some 
citizens  and  the  soldiers 
in  one  of  the  streets  of 
Boston,  whereupon  the 
troops  fired  upon  the 
crowd,  killing  five  and 
wounding  seven  others. 
This  event,  commonly 
known  as  the  "Boston 
Massacre,"  greatly  wi 
dened  the  breach.  An 
immense  concourse  gath 
ered  the  next  day  in  the 
Old  South  Meetinghouse. 
Samuel  Adams  was  sent 
to  Governor  Hutchinson x  to  demand,  in  the  name  of  three  thou 
sand  freemen,  the  removal  of  the  soldiers  from  the  town.  The 
governor  thought  it  prudent  not  to  refuse,  and  sent  the  troops 
to  an  island  in  Boston  Harbor. 


GOVERNOR  HUTCHINSON. 


THE   TAX  ON  TEA. 

133.   Partial  Repeal  of  the  Townshend  Acts.  —  These  events 
convinced   Parliament  that   the  Townshend   Acts  could   not 


1  Born,  1711 ;  died,  1780.  Member  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts, 
1737-1740  and  from  1741  to  1749 ;  speaker  from  1746  to  1748 ;  lieutenant  gov 
ernor  in  1756;  appointed  chief  justice  in  1760;  had  his  house  sacked  and  his 
valuable  library  destroyed  by  a  mob  infuriated  by  his  action  in  regard  to  the 
Stamp  Act  in  1765 ;  appointed  governor  of  the  province  in  1770 ;  letters  of  his 
revealed  by  Franklin  intensified  the  belief  that  he  was  responsible  for  the  acts 
of  the  British  government ;  sailed  for  England  in  1774,  where  he  died  a  con 
scientious  and  high-minded  Tory.  He  was  the  author  of  an  important  history 
of  Massachusetts. 


§134] 


THE  TAX  ON  TEA. 


99 


be  enforced;  but  the  government  only  repeated  the  course 
taken  in  repealing  the  Stamp  Act.  Instead  of  annulling  the 
obnoxious  provisions  out 
right,  they  repealed  the  tax 
on  all  the  articles  except 
tea,  but  they  held  to  the 
duty  on  this  one  article  in 
order  to  maintain  the  prin 
ciple.  They  ingeniously 
tried  to  make  the  tax  on 
tea  acceptable  by  remitting 
the  usual  duty  which  had 
to  be  paid  on  tea  sent  to 
America,  when  in  transit 
it  arrived  in  England.  But 
it 'was  not  the  cost  of  the 
tea  that  the  Americans 
objected  to;  it  was  the 
principle  of  taxation, 

134.  General  Treatment 
of  the  Tea.  —  As  the  Brit 
ish  had  no  doubt  the 
Americans  would  receive 
the  tea  under  these  condi 
tions,  large  cargoes  were 
sent  to  various  American 
ports.  The  government 
commissioners  appointed 
to  receive  this  tea  soon 
found  that  the  people 
everywhere  refused  it.  In  Charleston  large  quantities  were 


OLD  SOUTH  CHURCH,  BOSTON.! 


1  This  famous  old  church  in  the  heart  of  Boston,  the  meeting  place  of  the 
Revolutionists,  was  used  as  a  place  of  worship  until  far  into  the  nineteenth 
century.  When  it  was  in  danger  of  being  destroyed,  it  was  bought  by  a 
society  organized  for  the  purpose,  and  has  since  been  used  as  a  historical 
museum  and  a  place  for  instruction  in  American  history. 


100  CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION.  [§  135 

stored  and  afterward  sold  to  the  public ;  at  Annapolis  the  tea 
was  burned;  at  Philadelphia  and  at  New  York,  after  brow 
beating  the  commissioner  into  resigning,  the  people  compelled 
the  ships  to  return  to  England. 

135.  The  Boston  "  Tea  Party."  -  -  It  was  in  Boston,  however, 
that  the  most  vigorous  action  was  taken.     A  large  cargo  had 
arrived  in  December  of  1773,  but  the  people  would  not  allow 
it  to  be  landed.     The  vessel  no  doubt  would  have  returned  to 
England,  but  the  colonial  officers  refused  to  give  the  clearance 
papers  required  of  all  vessels  before  sailing.     If  the  cargo  was 
not  landed  within  twenty  days  after  its  arrival,  the  custom 
house  officers  were  authorized  by  law  to  seize  and  land  it  by 
force.     It  was  evident  that  the  tea  must  be  destroyed,  or  its 
landing  could  not  be  prevented  except  by  open  resistance.    On 
the  nineteenth  day  a  town  meeting  of  six  or  seven  thousand 
persons  met  in  and  about  the   Old   South  Meetinghouse  to 
decide  what  course  to  pursue.     During  the  evening,  in  accord 
ance  with  a  general  understanding,  a  great  crowd  went  down 
to   the   wharf   to   see  what  would   occur.      When  they  were 
assembled,   a   small    company   of    men,   dressed   as   Indians, 
quietly  rowed  out  to  the  ships,  broke  open  more  than  three 
hundred  chests  of  tea,  and  poured  the  contents  into  the  harbor. 

NEW  LEGISLATION  AND   OPPOSITION. 

136.  The  "Five  Acts  of  1774."  —  This  defiant  action,  though 
applauded  in  all  parts  of  the  colonies,  filled  the  British  govern 
ment  with  indignation,  and  drove  the  ministers  to  the  "  Five 
Acts  of  1774,"  which  by  their  unwise  energy  immediately  pre 
cipitated  the   crisis.      Four   of  these   were   directed   against 
Massachusetts  alone;  the  fifth  affected  all  the  colonies.     The 
first  of  the  five  acts  was  the  "  Boston  Port  Bill.'7     It  provided 
that  no  ships  should  be  allowed  to  enter  or  depart  froin  Boston 
Harbor  until  the  tea  that  had  been  destroyed  was  paid  for. 
This  in  effect  put  an  end  to  the  commerce  of  the  city,  and  com- 


§138]  NEW   LEGISLATION   AND   OPPOSITION.  10J 

pletely  destroyed  its  prosperity.  Gloucester  was  made ,  the 
port  of  entry  and  Salem  the  seat  of  government.  cThe,  t#&&td 
act  was  that  for  the  "  Impartial  Administration  of  Justice  in 
Massachusetts  Bay,"  which  reflected  upon  the  colony's  tribu 
nals  by  providing  for  the  trial  in  England  or  Nova  Scotia  of 
officials  accused  of  murder  committed  in  the  discharge  of 
their  functions.  The  third  was  the  "Massachusetts  Bill," 
which  virtually  took  away  the  charter  by  vesting  all  power  of 
appointment  and  removal  exclusively  in  the  governor  appointed 
by  the  Crown.  The  fourth  was  an  act  which  provided  for  the 
quartering  of  troops  on  the  people,  thus  establishing  the  means 
of  enforcing  new  laws.  The  fifth  was  the  "Quebec  Act,"  of 
which  the  most  offensive  feature  was  the  one  providing  that 
all  the  British  territory  west  of  the  Alleghanies  and  north  of 
the  Ohio  should  henceforth  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  Canada. 
As  this  territory  was  claimed  by  the  colonies,  the  act  was 
regarded  as  a  gross  infringement  of  their  rights.  The  Quebec 
Act  also  gave  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  throughout  Canada 
the  stamp  of  official  recognition. 

137.  Opposition  in  Parliament.  —  The  passage  of  these  acts 
was  strenuously  opposed  by  several  of  the  strongest  men  in 
Parliament.     The  opposition  of  Fox,  Burke,  Pitt,  and  Bane 
was   particularly  energetic.      In  the   House   of   Peers,  Lord 
Eockingham  and  his  friends  entered  a  protest  on  the  journal 
of  the  House,  and  the  Duke  of  Richmond  declared,  in  his 
indignation,  "I  wish  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart  that  the 
Americans  may  resist  and  get  the  better  of  the  forces  sent 
against  them."    But  the  king  was  determined,  and  Lord  North, 
who  had  just  been  advanced  to  the  position  of   prime  min 
ister,   gave   his   general   assent  to   the   measures,  though   he 
privately  tried  to  prevent  the  king  from  pressing  the  Transpor 
tation  Bill. 

138.  Effect  upon  the  Colonies.  —  Upon  the  colonies  the  effect 
of  these  acts  was  general  and  immediate.     As  soon  as  the  pro 
visions  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill  became  known,  the  colonies 


102 


C4USES  OF  THE   REVOLUTION. 


'[§  139 


FANEUIL  HALL,  BOSTON. 


.all  saw.tj^tr  they  must  act  together  or  be  individually  crushed. 
Public  opinion  ^pidly  took  definite  form.     This  was  largely 

the  work  of  commit 
tees  of  correspondence, 
organized  at  Faneuil 
Hall,  Boston,  chiefly 
through  the  energy 
and  foresight  of  Sam 
uel  Adams.  In  Vir 
ginia  a  similar  mode  of 
procedure  was  adopted 
the  following  year,  and 
an  invitation  was  ex 
tended  to  all  the  colonies  to  appoint  committees  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  work  of  these  committees  was  to  make  each 
colony  acquainted  with  the  views  of  all  the  others. 

139.  First  Continental  Congress.  —  As  a  result  of  the  agita 
tion  that  followed,  Massachusetts,  at  the  request  of  New  York, 
called  for  a  meeting  of  representatives  of  the  various  colonies, 
to  be  convened  early  in  September,  1774.  The  governor  of 
Georgia  prohibited  the  appointment 
of  delegates,  but  representatives  of 
the  twelve  other  colonies  met  on  the 
5th  of  September,  in  Carpenters' 
Hall,  in  Philadelphia.  This  body  is 
known  as  the  "First  Continental 
Congress."  It  contained  a  large 
share  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  coun 
try.  After  adopting  a  Declaration 
of  Colonial  Eights,  in  which  the 
political  claims  of  the  colonies  were 
clearly  and  fully  set  forth,  they 
named  eleven  different  acts,  which 
they  declared  had  been  passed  in  violation  of  their  rights 
since  the  accession  of  George  III.  They  framed  a  petition 


CARPENTERS'  HALL,  PHILA 
DELPHIA. 


§  140]  THE  CRISIS.  108 

to  the  king,  as  well  as  an  address  to  the  people  of  Great 
Britain,  and  then  formed  what  was  called  "  The  American 
Association,"  the  object  of  which  was  to  put  a  stop  to  all  trade 
with  Great  Britain  until  the  obnoxious  laws  should  be  repealed. 
After  providing  for  another  congress,  to  be  held  in  the  follow 
ing  spring,  the  meeting  adjourned  on  the  26th  of  October. 

THE   CRISIS. 

140.  General  Gage  and  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachu 
setts.  —  While  these  actions  were  taking  place  in  Philadelphia, 
affairs  were  drifting  to  an  immediate  crisis  in  Massachusetts. 
General  Gage,  now  governor  of  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  mili 
tary  commander,  was  fully  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  his  royal 
master.  He  promptly  sent  to  Chelsea  for  military  stores  and 
began  a  system  of  fortifications.  The  colonists,  easily  perceiv 
ing  the  significance  of  the  British  general's  action,  took  similar 
measures  of  precaution.  In  order  to  be  independent  of  Gen 
eral  Gage,  they  also  organized  what  is  known  as  "  The  Provin 
cial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  " ;  and  this  body,  on  the  very 
day  when  the  First  Continental  Congress  adjourned,  authorized 
the  organization  of  a  military  force,  consisting  of  all  the  able- 
bodied  men  in  the  colony.  One  fourth  of  these  were  to  be 
always  ready  for  action,  and,  hence,  were  known  as  minute- 
men.  After  making  provisions  for  supplying  the  army  with 
the  necessary  equipment  and  munitions,  the  Provincial  Con 
gress  intrusted  the  conduct  of  affairs  to  the  general  control  of 
a  Committee  of  Safety,  of  which  John  Hancock,1  a  wealthy 
merchant  of  Boston,  was  the  chairman. 

1  Born,  1737 ;  died,  1793.  Earnest  patriot,  and  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  from  1766  to  1772 ;  became  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Provincial 
Congress  in  1774 ;  was  exempted  from  pardon  by  Governor  Gage  in  1775 ;  was 
in  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1780,  and  from  1785  to  1786 ;  president 
of  Congress  from  1775  to  1777 ;  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
his  bold  signature  standing  first  on  the  document ;  was  commissioned  as 
major  general ;  delegate  to  Massachusetts  constitutional  convention  in  1780 ; 
governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1780  to  1785,  and  from  1787  to  1792;  liberally 
used  his  large  fortune  for  patriotic  and  benevolent  purposes. 


104 


CAUSES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 


[§141 


141.  Gage's  Purpose.  —  It  was  not  long  before  blood  was 
shed.  There  were  certain  military  stores  at  Concord,  and 
General  Gage  determined  to  seize  them.  For  this  purpose 
he  dispatched  very  secretly  about  eight  hundred  men,  under 
Lieutenant  Colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn.  The  expedition 
had  still  another  object.  The  king  having  ordered  the  arrest 


JOHN  HANCOCK. 

of  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams,  these  leaders  had 
withdrawn  from  Boston  and  were  the  guests  of  a  friend  in 
Lexington.  Gage  had  learned  where  they  were  and  had  ordered 
their  seizure  by  the  troops  bound  for  Concord.  The  British 
force,  after  taking  the  greatest  precautions  for  secrecy,  left  the 
city  on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  April.  But  the  vigilant  eye  of  a 
patriot,  Dr.  Warren,  had  detected  the  purpose  of  the  movement. 

142.    The  Ride  of  Paul  Revere.  — 111  spite  of  Gage's  orders 
that  nobody  should  leave  Boston  that  night,  Paul  Kevere,  a 


§143] 


THE   CRISIS. 


105 


Boston  goldsmith,  succeeded  in  crossing  the  Charles  River,  — 
having  previously  attended  to  setting  an  alarm  signal  in  the  tower 
of  the  Old  North  Church,  —  and  galloped  by  the  Medf ord  road 
toward  Lexington,  shouting  at  every  house  that  the  British 
were  coming. 

143.  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord.  —  The  mhmtemen 
instantly  assembled  and  drew  up  on  Lexington  Common  to 
meet  the  British  when  they 
appeared.  Pitcairn  ordered 
them  to  disperse,  but  seeing 
no  signs  of  their  moving,  first 
fired  his  own  pistols  and  then 
ordered  a  volley.  Eight  men 
were  killed  and  ten  wounded. 
Although  the  Americans  fired 
in  return,  they  were  in  no 
condition  to  offer  battle. 
Hancock  and  Adams,  having 
received  the  necessary  warn 
ing,  made  timely  escape.  The 
troops  pushed  on  to  Concord, 
but  found  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  stores  had  been  re 
moved.  Four  hundred  Ameri 
cans  then  charged  across  the 
Concord  bridge  and  drove 
back  the  British.  The  min- 
utemen  were  by  this  time 
streaming  in  from  every  direc 
tion,  and  as  the  British  were 
fired  upon  from  behind  trees 
and  fences,  they  had  nothing 
to  do  but  to  beat  a  retreat. 


STATUE  OF  MINUTEMAN  AT 
CONCORD. 

They  were   saved  only  by  a 


timely  reenf orcement  of  twelve  hundred  men  under  Lord  Percy. 
In  the  course  of  the  expedition  the  British  lost  two  hundred 


106  CAUSES   OF   THE   REVOLUTION.  [§  143 

and  seventy-three ;  the  Americans,  eighty-eight.  The  battles  of 
Lexington  and  Concord,  April  19, 1775,  proclaimed  to  everybody 
that  war  had  begun.  The  readiness  with  which  the  people 
responded  to  the  call  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  among  the 
killed  and  wounded  on  that  day  there  were  representatives  of 
twenty-three  different  towns.  Within  less  than  a  week  General 
Gage  found  himself  surrounded  in  Boston  by  a  motley  force 
of  sixteen  thousand  Americans  armed  with  such  weapons  as 
they  could  secure. 


REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTERS  VI. -VII.  —  Sir  G.  0.  Trevelyan,  American 
Revolution,  Vol.  I.,  contains  probably  the  best  account  of  the  Boston 
campaign ;  J.  Fiske,  American  Revolution  (2  vols.),  is  a  delightful 
presentation  of  the  whole  period ;  H.  C.  Lodge,  Story  of  the  Revolution 
(2 vols.);  G.  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United  States  (revised  edition); 
R.  Hildreth,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  III.;  W.  E.  H.  Lecky, 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  the  part  relating  to  the  American  war 
is  exceedingly  thorough,  careful,  and  valuable  ;  Lord  Mahon,  History  of 
England  (7  vols.),  more  inclined  to  the  British  view  than  Lecky  or  Trevel 
yan  ;  M.  C.  Tyler,  Literary  History  of  the  American  Revolution  (2  vols.), 
an  invaluable  work  on  the  history  of  public  opinion  during  the  period,  and 
especially  noteworthy  in  showing  the  power  of  the  Tories ;  M.  C.  Tyler, 
Patrick  Henry;  II.  C.  Lodge,  George  Washington  (2  vols.)  ;  E.  J.  Lowell, 
Hessians  ;  T.  Roosevelt,  The  Winning  of  the  West,  Vol.  II. ;  Burke,  Speech 
on  Conciliation  with  America;  Channing  and  Hart,  Guide  to  American 
History  ;  W.  Niles,  Principles  and  Acts  of  the  American  Revolution; 
J.  Parton,  Life  of  Franklin,  Life  of  Jefferson ;  for  other  biographies,  see 
Channing  and  Hart's  Guide,  §§  25,  32,  33,  and  135  ;  G.  C.  Eggleston, 
American  War  Ballads  ;  W.  Sargent,  Loyalist  Poetry  of  the  Revolution  ; 
J.  F.  Cooper,  The  Spy,  an  admirable  account  of  Tories  about  the  Hudson  ; 
S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Hugh  Wynne,  a  picture  of  social  conditions  about 
Philadelphia ;  P.  L.  Ford,  Janice  Meredith,  a  portrayal  of  life  in  New 
Jersey  during  nearly  the  whole  period  of  the  war ;  H.  Frederic,  In  the 
Valley,  life  on  the  Mohawk  in  the  Revolutionary  period ;  W.  G.  Simms, 
TJie  Partisan,  Mellichampe,  The  Scout,  Katharine  Walton,  The  Forayers, 
Eutaw,  all  relate  to  the  conflict  in  the  South ;  J.  P.  Kennedy,  Horse- 
Shoe  Robinson,  also  deals  with  the  war  in  the  South.  For  Paul  Revere's 
ride,  see  Longfellow's  poem  in  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775   AND   1776. 

EARLY   MOVEMENTS. 

144.  Continental  Army  and  Commander  in  Chief.  —  When  the 
Second  Continental  Congress  came  together  in  the   spring  of 
1775,  one  of  its  first  acts  was  to  adopt  as  a  continental  army 
the  forces  which  had  enlisted  in  Massachusetts.     It  then  per 
formed  an  act  of  the  greatest  possible  service  to  the  cause  by 
appointing  George  Washington 1  commander  in  chief.     Wash 
ington  was  forty-three  years  of  age,  and  the  important  ser 
vices  he  had  rendered  in  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania  (§§  106-111) 
had  given  him  such  military  knowledge  and  such  accuracy  of 
judgment  in  dealing  with  men  as  made  him  universally  re 
spected  and  admired.     He  accepted  the  appointment  with  a 
full  sense  of  the  greatness  of  the  task,  and  declared  that  he 
would  receive  no  pay,  but  would  rely  on  Congress  to  reimburse 
him  for  his  expenses. 

145.  Capture  of  Ticonderoga.  —  While  Congress  was  taking 
these  preliminary  steps,  there  was  great   activity  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.     Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner,  with  a 
small  force  from  Vermont,  assisted  by  a  few  men  from  Con 
necticut  under  Benedict  Arnold,  surprised  and  captured  Fort 
Ticonderoga.     By  this  success  the  Americans  got  possession 
of  an  important  fort,  as  well  as  of  many  stores  and  more  than 
two  hundred  cannon. 

1  Born,  Westmoreland  County,  Virginia,  February  22  (old  style,  February  11), 
1732;  died,  Mt.  Vernon,  Virginia,  December  14,  1799.  Received  only  an  ele 
mentary  education;  became  a  surveyor;  served  in  French  and  Indian  War; 
became  a  prominent  planter ;  favored  the  patriotic  cause ;  commander  in 
chief,  1775-1783;  presided  over  Convention  of  1787;  President,  1789-1797; 
commander  in  chief  of  provisional  army,  1798. 

107 


108 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775  AND   1776. 


[§146 


146.  Fortification  of  Bunker  Hill.  —  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
Lexington  and  Concord  spread  through  the  colonies,  troops 
poured  in  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston  from  Rhode  Island,  Con 
necticut,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania.  Before  the  middle  of 
June,  Boston,  on  the  land  side,  was  thoroughly  invested.  The 
British  had  seventeen  battalions  of  infantry  and  five  companies 
of  artillery,  and  before  June  their  army  was  joined  by  three 
major  generals  —  Howe,  Clinton,  and  Burgoyne.  Late  in  the 
afternoon  of  June  16,  General  Ward,  then  in  command  of  the 
Americans,  ordered  a  force  to  take  possession  of  Bunker  Hill,  a 
commanding  point  in  Charlestown,  just  north  of  Boston.  About 


BOSTON  AND  ITS  ENVIKONS. 

twelve  hundred  troops  under  Colonel  Prescott,  a  veteran  of  the 
French  War,  went  over  from  Cambridge  with  spades  and  picks, 
which  in  the  course  of  the  night  they  used  so  industriously  that 
the  British  soldiers  in  the  morning  saw  strong  works  confront 
ing  them.  But  instead  of  obeying  orders  and  occupying  Bunker 
Hill,  Prescott  occupied  Breed's  Hill,  a  point  nearer  Boston. 

147.  The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  —  General  Gage,  wishing  to 
dislodge  the  Americans  at  once,  instead  of  approaching  by  the 
Neck  (see  map,  p.  112),  where  he  could  have  cut  off  the  whole 


§147] 


EARLY  MOVEMENTS. 


109 


force,  ordered  an  immediate  assault  upon  the  enemy's  front. 
Meanwhile,  in  the  course  of  the  forenoon  (June  17),  the  Amer 
icans  were  reenforced  by  about  one  thousand  troops.  These 
newcomers,  however,  had  little  ammunition  and  few  bayonets. 
The  British,  numbering  about  three  thousand,  advanced  under 
the  gallant  lead  of  General 
Howe.  The  Americans  re 
served  their  fire  until  the 
front  ranks  were  within 
about  fifty  yards,  when  at 
the  first  volley  so  many  of 
the  assaulting  force  fell 
that  the  line  staggered  back 
in  confusion.  The  second 
advance  met  with  a  still 
more  disastrous  repulse.  In 
several  of  the  companies  as 
many  as  four  out  of  five  had 
fallen ;  but  when  the  third 
assault  was  made,  the  am 
munition  of  the  Americans 
gave  out,  and  the  British 
were  successful.  Among  the 
killed  were  many  officers  of  rank,  including  Pitcairn,  the  Brit 
ish  commander  who  had  fired  the  first  shot  at  Lexington,  and 
General  Warren,1  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  American  leaders. 
The  British  lost  one  thousand  and  fifty-four  in  killed  and 
wounded;  the  Americans,  four  hundred  and  forty-nine.  The 
forces  were  relatively  small,  but,  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  on 
the  field,  the  battle  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  engagements  of  mod 
ern  times.  On  both  sides  the  men  fought  with  a  bravery  worthy 

iBorn,  1741;  died,  1775.  Graduated  at  Harvard  and  became  physician  in 
Boston;  member  of  committee  of  correspondence,  1774;  a  noted  orator; 
chairman  of  Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Provincial  Congress  in  1775;  actively  engaged  in  raising  volunteers  in  1775 ; 
commissioned  major  general  by  the  Provincial  Congress,  but  waived  his  rank 
in  favor  of  the  veteran  Prescott,  and  fought  and  died  as  a  private  soldier. 


GENERAL  JOSEPH  WARREN. 


110 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1775  AND   1776. 


[§148 


of  the  best  traditions  of  English  courage.     Of  Howe's  twelve 
staff  officers  every  one  was  either  killed  or  wounded.     The  bat 

tie  made  it  evident 
that  untrained  Amer 
ican  recruits,  when 
behind  only  tempo 
rary  defenses,  had  no 
need  to  be  afraid  to 
meet  disciplined  vete 
rans.  The  British 
government,  dissatis 
fied  with  the  con 
duct  of  General  Gage, 
recalled  him  and 
he  was  superseded 
by  General  William 

Howe.1 
GENERAL  HOWE. 

WASHINGTON  IN  COMMAND. 

148.  Difficulties  confronting  Washington.  —  Washington  soon 
reached  the  scene  of  action,  and  took  command  of  the  American 
army  on  July  3,  under  an  elm  tree  which  still  stands  near  Har 
vard  University,  in  Cambridge,  commemorating  the  event.  The 
difficulties  which  beset  him  might  well  have  disheartened  a  less 
resolute  and  skillful  commander.  His  embarrassments  were 
chiefly  of  three  kinds.  In  the  first  place,  the  number  of  men 
at  his  command  was  at  no  time  greater  than  the  number  of  the 
regular  British  troops  confronting  him.  His  force  had  left 
their  farms  in  midsummer  without  having  enlisted  for  any. 
definite  period,  and  when  the  first  burst  of  enthusiasm  died 
away,  it  was  very  difficult  to  keep  the  ranks  filled.  In  the 
second  place,  each  of  the  provinces  had  its  own  laws,  and 

iBorn,  1729;  died,  1814.  Served  under  Wolfe  at  Quebec;  commander  in 
chief  of  British  forces  in  America  in  1775;  was  superseded  by  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  in  1778,  though  he  was  knighted  for  his  successes  about  New  York  in 
J77G ;  was  unsuccessful  as  a  strategist,  and  noted  for  his  indolence. 


§148] 


WASHINGTON  IN  COMMAND. 


Ill 


consequently  there  was  no  uniformity  of  method  and  no  sub 
ordination  to  any  common  authority.  Washington  dismissed 
sundry  officers  for  insubordination,  and  he  was  obliged  per 
sistently  to  urge  the  governors  of  the  several  states  to  keep 


THE  WASHINGTON  ELM,  CAMBRIDGE. 

their  quotas  full.1  In  the  third  place,  he  soon  discovered  that 
the  Americans  had  very  little  ammunition.  There  was  not 
enough  for  a  single  battle,  and  it  was  plain  that  if  at  any  time 
during  the  fall  or  winter  the  British  should  make  a  vigorous 

*To  the  president  of  Congress  he  wrote:  "  There  must  be  some  other  stim 
ulus  besides  love  of  their  country  to  make  men  fond  of  the  service."  And 
again  he  wrote :  "  Such  a  dearth  of  public  virtue;  such  a  stock-jobbing  and 
strife  to  obtain  advantage  of  one  kind  and  another,  I  never  saw  before,  and 
I  pray  God's  mercy  I  may  never  be  witness  to  again.  I  tremble  at  the 
prospect.  Could  I  have  foreknown  what  I  have  experienced,  no  consideration 
upon  earth  could  have  induced  me  to  accept  this  command." 


112 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775   AND    1776. 


[§149 


attack,  they  would  in  all  probability  succeed  in  breaking  up 
the  American  army.  To  supply  this  deficiency  Washington 
sent  messengers  in  every  direction.  He  dispatched  an  expedi 
tion  to  seize  the  British  stores  at  the  Bermudas ;  he  had  cannon 
dragged  on  ox  sleds  from  Ticonderoga ;  and  he  gradually  col 
lected  powder  from  all  the  country  towns  in  the  region. 

149.  The  Taking  of  Dorchester  Heights.  —  Notwithstanding  all 
these  discouragements,  Washington  drilled  the  army  vigorously 
throughout  the  fall  and  winter.      Early  in  March,  1776,  he 

determined  upon  a  move 
ment  which  was  destined 
to  prove  decisive.  Dor 
chester  Heights,  projecting 
from  the  mainland  south 
of  Boston,  commanded 
the  town  from  this  direc 
tion,  as  Charlestown  com 
manded  it  from  the  north. 
Howe  committed  a  fatal 
blunder  in  not  establishing 
himself  upon  this  point; 
and  the  consequence  was, 
that  one  morning  he  dis 
covered  that  the  enterprising  enemy  had  not  only  occupied  the 
hill,  but  had  thrown  up  formidable  works  commanding  the  city. 
A  few  days  later,  on  March  9,  the  Americans  also  constructed 
works  on  Nook's  Point,  which  commanded  the  Neck  and  brought 
every  part  of  the  city  within  range. 

150.  Evacuation  of  Boston.  —  Howe,  not  caring  to  repeat  the 
experiences  of  Bunker  Hill,  saw  that  he  must  evacuate  the  city. 
With   all   his   troops   he   withdrew   and    sailed    for   Halifax, 
March  17,  1776,  leaving  the  Americans  in  full  possession.    His 
force  of  veterans  had  been  besieged  for  months  by  an  army  of  raw 
troops,  which  did  not  at  any  time  exceed  in  number  the  army  of 
the  besieged.     More  remarkable  still,  the  besieging  army  had, 


§151] 


WASHINGTON  IN  COMMAND. 


113 


during  this  period,  been  disbanded  and  reorganized,  and  during 
most  of  the  winter  had  not  had  ammunition  amounting  to  more 
than  thirty  rounds  to  a 
man.  This  great  achieve 
ment  not  only  inspired  the 
colonies,  but  convinced  the 
British  government  that 
it  had  undertaken  a  most 
formidable  task.  Wash 
ington,  without  a  battle, 
had,  by  his  superior  strat 
egy,  maneuvered  his  ene 
my  out  of  the  city. 

151.  Expedition  into 
Canada.  —  While  the  siege 
of  Boston  was  going  on. 
Colonel  Benedict  Arnold1 
suggested  that  an  expedi 
tion  should  be  sent  for  the 
capture  of  Montreal  and 

Quebec.  Unfortunately,  this  unwise  proposition  prevailed.  A 
part  of  the  force  under  General  Montgomery  descended  Lake 
Champlain  and,  after  a  difficult,  brilliant  campaign,  took 
Montreal.  The  other  command,  under  Arnold,  after  an  expedi 
tion  of  almost  indescribable  hardships  through  the  forests  of 

1  Born,  1741 ;  died,  1801.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1775  left  his  business 
in  Connecticut  to  join  the  service ;  was  commissioned  colonel  by  the  Massa 
chusetts  Provincial  Congress;  acquired  immediate  fame  by  his  attack  on 
Quebec ;  was  advanced  to  brigadier  general ;  was  defeated  by  the  British  at 
Valcour  Island  in  Lake  Champlain,  October,  1770 ;  made  a  skillful  retreat ;  took 
leading  part  in  campaign  against  Burgoyne  in  1777 ;  was  given  command  in 
Philadelphia,  when  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  prominent  Tories,  one  of 
whose  daughters  he  married  ;  entered  into  correspondence  under  an  assumed 
name  with  an  officer  of  Howe's  army;  sought  and  obtained  command  of  West 
Point  for  the  purpose  of  turning  it  over  to  the  enemy ;  escaped  to  the  British, 
from  whom  he  received  a  sum  of  money,  a  brigadier  generalship  in  the  army, 
and  the  command  of  a  force  in  Virginia.  His  last  days  were  spent  in  England 


COLONEL  BENEDICT  AKNULU. 


114  THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1775   AND   1776.  [§  152 

Maine  in  the  dead  of  winter,  presented  itself  before  Quebec. 
Montgomery,  who  had  by  that  time  advanced  from  Montreal, 
attacked  the  city  from  above  while  Arnold  attacked  it  from 
below.  Montgomery  was  killed  while  scaling  the  heights,  and 
Arnold  was  severely  wounded.  Morgan,  Arnold's  second  in 
command,  pressed  forward  and  would,  no  doubt,  have  been 
successful,  if  Montgomery's  force  had  not  been  thrown  into 
panic  by  the  fall  of  their  leader.  Morgan  and  nearly  all  his 
force  were  taken  prisoners,  and  the  expedition  was  a  complete 
failure. 

152.  Final  Effort  of  Congress  for  Peace.  —  In  the  course  of 
the  same  winter  (1775-1776),  Congress,  then  in  session  at  Phila 
delphia,  put  forth  another  and  a  final  effort  to  make  terms  with 
the  king.     A  careful  and  formal  statement  of  grievances  was 
sent  to  England,  but  neither  the  king  nor  Parliament  would 
receive  it,  determining  instead  very  greatly  to  increase  the 
army.     This  was  done,  partly  by  sending  additional  British 
troops,  and  partly  by  hiring  about  twenty  thousand  Germans 
from  some  of  the  lesser  German  princes.    As  these  mercenaries 
came  very  largely  from  the  duchy  of  Hesse,  they  were  known 
throughout  the  war  as  Hessians.     The  fact  that  the  British 
bought  the  services  of  foreigners  to  fight  the  Americans  greatly 
exasperated  the  colonists. 

THE   WAR  IN  NEW   YOKK. 

153.  Washington's   Movements.  —  After   the   failure  of  the 
Canadian  expedition,  Washington  conjectured  that  the  British 
would  try  to  get  possession  of  the  Hudson  by  attacking  it  both 
from  the  north  and  from  the  south.     He  had  no  doubt  that 
Howe's  force  would  ultimately  land  at  New  York.     To  meet 
such  a  movement,  he  ordered  Arnold,  as  soon  as  he  should  re 
cover  from  his  wound,  to  oppose  any  approach  from  the  north, 
while  he  himself  should  transfer  the  greater  part  of  his  army 
to  New  York.      Arriving  in  April,  1776,  he  soon  found  that 
his  conjecture  had  been   correct.     Howe,  as  soon  as  he  had 


§154] 


THE   WAK   IN  NEW    YORK. 


115 


reorganized  his  forces  in  Halifax,  set  sail  for  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson.  Here  he  established  headquarters  upon  Staten 
Island,  where  he  received  reinforcements  till  he  had  an 
army  of  about  thirty 
thousand  men.  He 
soon  had  the  assist 
ance  also  of  a  for 
midable  fleet  under 
Admiral  Lord  Howe, 
his  brother. 

154.  Occupation  of 
New  York  and  Brook 
lyn. —  Washington 
had  not  only  taken 

possession     of     New 

York   City,  but   had 

fortified     Governor's 

Island,    as    well    as 

Brooklyn,     and     the 

New  Jersey  shore  at 

Paulus  Hook  opposite 

New  York.  Brooklyn 

Heights  were  put  in 

command  of  General  Nathanael  Greene,1  but  he  was  suddenly 

stricken  with    fever   and  the   command    was   transferred  to 

General  Israel  Putnam,2  with  Generals  Sullivan  and  Stirling 

1  Born,  1742;  died,  1786.    Member  of  the  Rhode  Island  assembly  in  1770; 
joined  a  military  company  in  1774 ;  became  brigadier  general  in  1775;  major 
general  in  1776 ;  showed  great  military  talents  at  Dorchester  Heights,  Brook 
lyn,  Trenton,  Princeton,  Brandywine,  and  Germantown;  succeeded  Gates  in 
the  South,  1780,  and  by  his  strategic  skill  in  opposing  Cornwallis  and  Lord 
Rawdon,  cleared  the  South  and  drove  Cornwallis  into  the  position  which  re 
sulted  in  the  surrender  at  Yorktown.    Washington  regarded  him  as  the  most 
skillful  of  his  generals,  and  posterity  has  confirmed  this  judgment. 

2  Born,  1718;  died,  1790.    A  noted  ranger  in  the  Indian  "Wars;  served  a': 
Bunker  Hill;   major  general,  1775;   commanded  in  defeat  of  Long  Island, 
1776,  in  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  1777,  and  in  Connecticut,  1778-1779 ;  dis 
abled  by  paralysis,  1779.    Famed  for  fight  with  wolf,  and  for  other  exploits. 


GENERAL  NATHANAEL  GREENE. 


116  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775  AND   1776.  [§  155 

as  subordinate  officers,  and  a  force  of  about  nine  thousand 
men. 

155.  Battle  of  Long  Island.  —  As  this  position  commanded 
the  city,  the  British  took  the  natural  course  of  planning  an 
attack  from  the  east.      Landing  southeast  of  Brooklyn  with 
about  twenty  thousand  men,  August  22  and  25,  Howe  pushed 
one  of  his  divisions  by  a  circuitous  route  toward  the  north,  for 
the  purpose  of  turning  the  flank  of  the  Americans  and  making 
their  escape  in  that  direction  impossible.      In  the  battle  of 
Long  Island,  which  ensued,  the  Americans,  having  only  about 
five   thousand  men   in   the  field,  were    greatly   outnumbered 
and  defeated.     Generals  Sullivan  and  Stirling,  with  about  two 
thousand  of  their  men,  were  taken  prisoners.     The  remainder 
of  the  army  fell  back  and  rejoined  Putnam  within  the  fortifica 
tions.     Preparations  were  at  once  made  for  a  siege.     With  the 
British  force  surrounding  Brooklyn  on  the  land  side  and  with 
Admiral  Howe's  fleet  in  New  York  Bay,  the  escape   of  the 
army,  which  Washington  had  now  reeriforced  to  about  twelve 
thousand  men,  seemed  impossible. 

156.  Retreat  to  New  York.  —  Washington  well  knew  that  the 
Brooklyn  army  must  either  escape  or  surrender.      He  there 
fore  caused  all  the  boats  and  rafts  of  every  kind  that  could 
transport  men  or  ammunition,  to  be  brought  together  from  the 
various  streams  arid  bays  in  the  vicinity.     So  skillfully  was 
this  work  done,  that  in  the  course  of  a  single  foggy  night, 
August  29,  the  boats  were  collected  on  the  Brooklyn  side  of 
the  river,  and  the  whole  army,  with  guns  and  stores,  was  taken 
across  to  New  York.     This  remarkable  exploit  might,  no  doubt, 
have  been  prevented  had  there  been  greater  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  the  British  fleet. 

157.  Evacuation  of  New  York.  —  But  this  bit  of  good  fortune 
did  not  enable  Washington  to  hold  New  York.     The  British 
immediately  sailed   up  the  East  River  and  prepared  to  land 
their  forces,  if  possible,  so  as  to  intercept  Washington's  army. 


§  158]  THE   WAR   IN  NEW  YORK.  117 

They  secured  a  footing,  September  15,  first  at  Kipp's  Bay, 
where  the  Thirty-fourth  Street  ferry  now  is,  and  later  at 
Throg's  Neck,  a  few  miles  above ;  but  the  main  force  of  the 
Americans  was  able  to  pass  up  the  west  coast  of  the  island 
before  the  enemy  could  cut  them  off.1  Washington's  troops 
were  not  numerous  enough  to  justify  a  pitched  battle;  but 
while  retreating,  he  retarded  and  annoyed  the  enemy  at  every 
point.  On  the  28th  of  October  he  fought  a  slight  engage 
ment  at  White  Plains,  some  thirty  miles  from  New  York, 
to  hold  the  British  in  check  while  the  main  army  should  pass 
still  farther  north.  The  British  now  withdrew  to  Dobb's  Ferry 
and  threatened  Fort  Washington. 

158.  Loss  of  Fort  Washington  and  Fort  Lee.  —  The  lower 
Hudson  at  that  time  depended  for  its  defense  upon  two  fortifi 
cations:  Fort  Washington,  situated  near  the  upper  end  of 
Manhattan  Island,  on  which  the  city  of  New  York  stands,  and 
Fort  Lee,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  Washington  de 
cided  to  abandon  these  defenses  to  the  British  and  to  establish 
strong  fortifications  some  forty-five  miles  up  the  river.  Con 
gress,  however,  directed  that  Fort  Washington  be  held,  if 
possible;  and  the  commander  unfortunately  yielded  his  opinion 
so  far  as  to  allow  General  Greene,  who  was  in  command  of 
both  the  forts,  to  defend  them  in  case  he  should  deem  success 
ful  defense  possible.  The  result  was  the  most  serious  of  the 
early  disasters  of  the  war.  The  British  broke  through  the 
obstructions  that  had  been  placed  in  the  river,  and  having 
passed  with  their  fleet  above  Fort  Washington,  surrounded  it 
in  such  a  way  that  escape  was  impossible.  When  a  vigorous 

1  The  American  troops,  notwithstanding  the  energetic  threats  of  Washing 
ton,  acted  in  a  very  cowardly  manner  and  offered  little  resistance  at  Kipp's 
Bay,  and  Howe  had  no  difficulty  in  landing.  Had  he  pushed  rapidly  across 
Manhattan  Island,  Putnam's  army  would  inevitably  have  been  cut  off.  But 
Mrs.  Lindley  Murray,  whose  mansion  stood  on  Murray  Hill,  invited  the  British 
officers  to  refresh  themselves  with  luncheon,  whereupon  a  halt  was  called, 
and  they  were  detained  for  two  hours.  During  this  time  Putnam  with  his 
army  of  four  thousand  marched  up  the  west  side  of  the  island  and  soon 
joined  Washington. 


118  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775   AND   1776.  [§  159 

assault  was  made,  nearly  three  thousand  American  troops  were 
forced  to  surrender,  November  16.  The  abandonment  of  Fort 
Lee  necessarily  followed 

GENERAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

159.    Lack  of  Union  among  the  Colonies.  —  The  war  was  not 

simply  a  war  of  separation ;  it  was  also  in  some  of  its  features 
a  civil  war.  The  loss  of  New  York,  including  Fort  Washing 
ton,  brought  out  the  American  opponents  of  the  Revolution  in 
great  force.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the  agitation  which 
resulted  in  independence,  there  had  been  three  somewhat  dis 
tinct  classes  of  people  among  the  colonists.  One  class  Relieved 

that  on  the  whole  the  British 
government  was  the  best  in  ex 
istence,  and  that  the  colonists 
would  be  benefited  by  showing 
a  constant  spirit  of  loyalty  and 
fidelity  to  the  Crown.  Such 
people  were  opposed  to  every 
form  of  agitation  that  would 
look  to  the  British  like  insubordi- 

COLONIAL  FLAG,  1776.  naU°n;      The  SeC°nd  daSS>  while 

believing  that  there  were  abuses 

which  should  and  would  be  corrected,  acknowledged  the  su 
preme  power  of  Parliament.  Like  the  British,  they  did  not 
see  why  their  lack  of  representation  differed  very  greatly  in 
principle  from  the  condition  of  some  of  the  larger  towns  in 
England.  They  thought  also  that  the  abuses  could  in  time 
be  removed  by  a  general  and  friendly  agitation.  The  third 
class  consisted  of  the  out-and-out  reformers.  Their  leaders 
were  such  men  as  Samuel  Adams,  James  Otis,  and  Patrick 
Henry,  who  believed  that  if  the  rights  of  the  colonies  were 
not  granted  when  they  were  pointed  out,  the  proper  course 
was  to  fight  for  them.  As  the  agitation  went  on  and  the 
British  government  made  blunder  after  blunder,  the  third  of 
these  classes,  though  at  first  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  others. 


§  161]  FAILURE   OF   BRITISH   EXPEDITIONS.  119 

became  more  perfectly  organized  and  so  got  the  upper  hand. 
But  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  American  people 
at  any  time  were  unanimous  on  the  subject  of  independence, 
or  even  of  resistance.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  second  year 
of  the  war,  even  in  New  England,  one  fourth  of  the  people 
were  opposed  to  it;  that  in  the  Middle  states  the  proportion 
was  as  great  as  one  third ;  and  in  the  Southern  states  nearly, 
or  quite,  as  great  as  one  half. 

160.  The  Tories.  — All  those  who  were  opposed  to  the  action 
of  Congress  naturally  came  to  be  regarded  as  enemies,  and  were 
known  as  Tories.     From  the  first  they  made  a  vast  amount  of 
trouble.     During  the   siege  of  Boston  they  were   numerous, 
outspoken,  and  influential.     They  desired  that  the  Revolution 
ary  cause  should  fail.     They  acted  as  spies  and  carried  infor 
mation  to  the  British;  and  whenever  the  patriot  cause  suffered 
any  check  or  disaster,  they  did  whatever  they  could  to  show 
that   successful   resistance  was  impossible.      In  the  State  of 
New  York  the  Tories  from  the  first  were  not  only  numerous, 
but   very  active.     Soon  after  Washington  took  possession  of 
the  city  he  discovered  that  Tryon,  the  Tory  governor,  was  at 
the   bottom   of   a   plot  to   capture  or  kill  the  commander  in 
chief,  and  turn  over  the  city  to  the  enemy.     Tryon  escaped, 
but  some  of  the  other  leaders  were  arrested  and  tried,  and  one 
of  Washington's  own  guards,  who  had  been  bribed,  was  pub 
licly  hanged.     Though  this  summary   procedure   discouraged 
the  Tories,  they  continued  to  be  of  great  service  to  the  British 
and  of  great  annoyance  to  the  Americans.     In  New  York  and 
in  the  South  the  struggle  was   attended  with   many  of   the 
horrors  of  civil  war. 

FAILURE   OF   BRITISH   EXPEDITIONS. 

161.  Carleton's   Expedition.  —  While  Washington   had   been 
unsuccessfully  attempting  to  resist  the  advances  of  the  British 
in  New  York,  the  Americans  had  been  more  fortunate  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.     An  expedition  under  Sir  Guy  Carleton, 


120 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1775  AND   1776. 


[§162 


the  governor  of  Canada,  was  planned  to  advance  up  the  river 
St.  John,  into  Lake  Champlain,  and  down  the  Hudson,  but 
it  met  so  vigorous  a  resistance  from  Arnold  near  Valcour's 
Island,  that,  although  Arnold's  fleet  was  almost  destroyed, 
the  British  were  obliged  to  return  to  Montreal  for  winter 
quarters. 

162.  Expedition  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  —  In  the  South  the 
enemy  fared  no  better.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  with  about  two 

thousand  men,  had 
been  sent  from  Bos 
ton,  while  the  siege 
was  going  on,  to  take 
possession  of  North 
Carolina ;  but  the 
sturdy  Scotchmen  of 
that  state,  who  were 
generally  Tories,  were 
defeated  by  the  pa 
triots,  who  imme 
diately  organized  so 
powerful  a  resistance 
that  Clinton  did  not 
attempt  even  to  land. 
Keenforced  a  little 
later  by  a  British  fleet 
of  ten  ships  under  Sir 
Peter  Parker,  he  ad 
vanced  upon  Charles 
ton  in  South  Carolina. 

Vigorous  preparations  for  resistance  had  already  been  made, 
under  the  direction  of  General  Lee.  General  William  Moul- 
trie1  constructed  a  low  fort  in  Charleston  Harbor,  chiefly  of 

*Born,  1731;  died,  1805.  Member  of  Continental  Congress  from  South 
Carolina  in  1775;  defended  Sullivan's  Island  in  1776;  defeated  the  British  at 
Beaufort  and  defended  Charleston  in  1779 ;  was  governor  of  South  Carolina 
in  1785  and  1794. 


GENERAL  WILLIAM  MOULTRIE. 


§163]  THE   DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE.  121 

palmetto  logs  and  sand,  which  proved  an  effectual  barrier  to 
the  British  advance.  The  shots  from  the  fleet  sank  into  the 
spongy  logs  without  doing  much  damage,  while  the  shots  from 
the  fort  were  so  effective  as  to  disable  nine  of  the  ten  ships 
(June  28).  The  gallantry  of  this  defense  has  caused  the  fort 
ever  since  to  be  known  as  Fort  Moultrie,  although  events  of 
the  War  between  the  States  have  caused  the  neighboring  Fort 
Sumter  to  become  more  famous.  Clinton's  land  force  being 
held  back  for  lack  of  suitable  boats,  the  expedition  proved 
a  complete  failure,  and  the  British  with  their  disabled  ships 
returned  to  the  North. 

THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE. 

163.  Growing  Spirit  of  Independence.  —  Of  much  greater  im 
portance  than  the  events  in  the  field  were  the  events  in  Con 
gress.  At  the  beginning  of  the  contest  public  opinion  in 
America  very  generally  attributed  the  course  of  Great  Britain 
to  bad  leaders  in  Parliament  rather  than  to  the  king.  At  first 
there  was  a  strong  feeling  of  loyalty  and  even  affection  toward 
George  III.,  which  would  have  made  it  easy  for  him  to  heal  all 
differences.  One  effort  after  another  had  been  made  to  induce 
the  king  to  consider  the  petitions  and  remonstrances  sent  him, 
but  these  efforts  had  all  failed.  Even  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  war  there  was  very  little  general  thought  of  independ 
ence.  But  at  the  end  of  May,  soon  after  the  news  of  the  first 
conflict  at  Lexington  and  Concord  reached  North  Carolina,  the 
people  of  Mecklenburg  County  assembled  and  passed  a  series 
of  resolutions,  declaring  that  as  the  mother  country  had  pro- 
nounced  the  Americans  rebels,  the  colonists  were  absolved  from 
all  further  allegiance.  This  declaration  seems  to  have  attracted 
very  little  attention  at  the  time ;  but  as  events  progressed,  pub 
lic  opinion  drifted  so  rapidly  in  this  direction,  that  early  in  the 
summer  of  1776  the  leading  minds  came  one  after  another  to 
the  conclusion  that  independence- was  inevitable.  Final  action 
was  not  the  result  of  any  sudden  impulse,  but  of  most  careful 
consideration. 


122  THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1775  AND  177ft  [§  164 

164.  Signing  of  the  Declaration.  —  After  much  private  dis 
cussion  had  revealed  the  opinions  of  the  members  of  Congress, 
Richard  Henry  Lee,1  on  the  7th  of  June,  offered  a  resolution 
that  "  these  united  colonies  are  and  ought  to  be  independent 

states,  and  they  are  absolved 
from  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown."  The  resolu 
tion  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  Dickinson  of  Pennsyl 
vania  and  Livingston  of 
New  York,  partly  on  the 
ground  that  a  sufficient  time 
had  not  yet  elapsed  for  an 
answer  from  the  king,  and 
partly  because  the  individ 
ual  colonies  had  not  yet 
authorized  such  action.  But 
the  colonies  did  not  long 
hesitate.  Most  of  them  had 

already  erected  independent 
RICHARD  HENRY  LEE.  * 

governments  or  their  own. 

As  early  as  July,  1775,  Massachusetts  had  formed  a  govern 
ment  in  which  the  king's  authority  was  practically  set  aside, 
and  James  Bowdoin  was  made  chief  executive  officer  and  John 
Adams  chief  justice.  Before  July,  1776,  all  the  other  provinces, 
with  the  exception  of  New  York,  had  taken  similar  measures, 
and  more  than  two  thirds  of  them  had  voted  for  independence 
and  had  instructed  their  delegates  to  vote  for  Lee's  resolution. 
This  resolution  was  accordingly  adopted  by  Congress  on  the 

*  Born,  1732 ;  died,  1794.  Educated  in  England ;  was  a  leader  of  the  Virginia 
House  of  Burgesses,  1761  to  1788 ;  opposed  the  slave  trade  and  the  Stamp  Act ; 
was  one  of  the  first  to  suggest  the  famous  committees  of  correspondence ;  was 
on  the  committee  to  draft  the  address  of  the  First  Continental  Congress; 
drafted  the  address  of  the  Second  Congress ;  moved  the  Resolution  of  Inde 
pendence  ;  was  very  earnest  in  his  opposition  to  the  adoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1788;  was  a  prominent  Anti-Federalist  and  United  States 
senator,  1789  to  1792. 


164] 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


123 


2d  of  July.      A  committee,  with  Thomas  Jefferson1  as  chair 
man,  had  been  appointed  in  June  to  draw  up  a  formal  declara 
tion  in  case  independence  should  be  agreed  upon.     Jefferson, 
then  only  thirty- 
three     years     of 


age, 


wrote    the 


paper  which,  after 
slight  modifica 
tions  by  Frank 
lin  and  Adams, 
was  adopted  as 
the  Declaration 
of  Independence, 
on  the  4th  of 
July,  1776.  This 
immortal  docu 
ment  was  thus 
put  forth  as  an 
expression  of  the 
deliberate  and 
firm  conviction 
of  the  American 
people  that  the 
priceless  treasure 
of  human  liberty 

could   be   preserved  in  no  other  manner.      As  the  members 
one   after    another,   with   a   solemn   sense  of  the   danger  of 

i  Born,  1743 ;  died,  1826.  Graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College ;  became 
a  lawyer  and  entered  House  of  Burgesses  in  1769 ;  was  active  in  Revolution 
ary  agitation  as  a  writer  rather  than  as  a  speaker ;  drafted  the  instructions 
to  the  Virginia  delegates  and  consequently  was  proscribed  by  Great  Britain ; 
soon  after  drafting  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  left  Congress  to  reenter 
Virginian  politics,  where  as  governor  and  legislator  he  exerted  much  influence 
in  securing  reforms  ;  went  to  France  as  plenipotentiary  in  1784 ;  returned  to 
America  in  1789,  just  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution;  became  first 
Secretary  of  State ;  wrote  much  to  show  his  fears  that  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  would  end  in  monarchy;  became  Vice  President,  1797-1801 ;  Presi 
dent,  1801-1809 ;  retired  to  Monticello  and  founded  the  University  of  Virginia, 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON. 


124 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775   AND   1776. 


[§165 


this  momentous  act,  signed  the  memorable  document,  Frank 
lin1  threw  a  gleam 
of  sunshine  upon  the 
occasion  by  remarking 
that  they  must  now 
all  hang  together,  or 
they  would  hang  sepa 
rately. 


165.    Purport     and 
Effect    of    the    Declara 
tion. — The  Declaration 
I      of    Independence    was 
HOUSE   IN  WHICH   JEFFERSON  WROTE   THE       aimed    directly   at    the 
DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE,  corner  of       Crown.     It  charged  the 
Market  and  Seventh  Streets,  Philadelphia. 

king    with    "  repeated 

injuries   and   usurpations,    all   having    in    direct    object    the 
establishment   of    an    absolute    tyranny   over   these    States." 
This     general     indict-      rr^ 
ment    was     sustained, 
with    some    exaggera 
tions   but   with   essen 
tial     truthfulness,    by 
no  less  than  eighteen 
accusations,    or     sepa 
rate   counts,  aimed   at 
the  king,  and  the  king 
alone.     So   far   as  the 
purpose  of  the  colonies 
was     defined    by    the 


OLD  STATEHOUSE  IN  PHILADELPHIA,  NOW 
KNOWN  AS  INDEPENDENCE  HALL. 


1  Born,  1706  ;  died,  1790.  Apprenticed  in  Boston  as  a  printer,  and 
developed  great  fondness  for  reading  and  writing  ;  ran  away  to  Philadelphia 
in  1723  :  established-  a  newspaper  in  1729  ;  advanced  rapidly  in  prominence 
through  his  talents  as  a  writer  and  success  as  a  scientific  discoverer  ;  was 
appointed  Deputy  Postmaster-general  of  the  British  colonies  in  1753  ;  was  the 
moving  spirit  of  the  Albany  convention  in  1754  ;  was  agent  for  Pennsylvania 
iu  England  from  1764  to  the  Revolution  ;  also  for  a  part  of  the  time. agent  for 


165] 


THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE. 


127 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Georgia;  returning  in  1775,  was  one  of  the 
committee  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  was  sent  to  join 
Arthur  Lee  and  Silas  Deane  as  Ministers  to  France  in  autumn  of  1776 ;  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm  in  Paris,  and  obtained  not  only  the  Treaty  of 
1778,  but  also  large  sums  of  money  for  the  assistance  of  the  colonies  ;  played 
an  important  part  in  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  1783;  was  chosen  president  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1785,  1786,  and  1787,  and  was  an  influential  member  of  the 
Federal  Convention  of  1787. 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF    1775   AND   1776.  [§166 

Declaration,  it  was  not  a  contest  against  the  parliamentary 
government  of  Great  Britain,  but  a  contest  against  those  un 
constitutional  usurpations  of  the  Crown  to  which  the  colonies 
would  not  submit.  From  this  point  of  view  many  modern 


(/)  fl\f.J-&   c^-<^>!   i/t    w  n\.t, 
v*rvvr~rvr,\.t^  t 
w  l/l's  fxn*^?  tsn.  j 

<     o    f--Co-    '}hJZ^r  jaJ^^i    fc  h.<^rrn 
J  ol  v     ff  // 

Cfirvvrr^rnjiwtj   U^< 

PORTION  OF  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

criticisms  of  the  document  are  seen  to  be  hypercritical.  How 
ever  much  the  signers  may  have  exaggerated  specific  charges, 
they  did  not  exaggerate  the  general  danger  to  be  apprehended 
from  the  king's  self-willed  conduct. 

THE   WAR   IN   NEW  JERSEY. 

166.  Washington's  First  Campaign  in  New  Jersey.  —  After  the 
fall  of  Fort  Washington  and  the  withdrawal  from  Fort  Lee, 
Washington  planned  to  concentrate  the  main  portion  of  his 
army  in  New  Jersey,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  advancing 
upon  Philadelphia.  In  crossing  to  New  Jersey  he  had  left 
General  Charles  Lee,  with  seven  thousand  men,  at  Northcastle 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson.  Washington  now  directed 
General  Heath  to  fortify  the  Highlands  about  Peekskill  and 
West  Point  in  the  strongest  manner  possible,  and  ordered 
General  Lee  to  join  the  main  army  in  New  Jersey. 


THE   WAR  IN  NEW  JERSEY.  127 

167.  Disobedience  and  Capture  of  Lee.  —  For   reasons  which 
were  long  unexplained,  Lee  disobeyed  the  order  of  Washing 
ton,  and  chose  to  remain  where  he  was.     Repeated  orders  were 
disobeyed,  but   finally  Lee   made  a  show  of    obedience.     He 
reached  Morristown,  however,  with  only  three  thousand  of  his 
seven  thousand  troops.     Scarcely  had  he  posted  this  fragment 
of  his  army  on  the  Morristown  Heights  when,  leaving  the  im 
mediate   command  to  Sullivan,  he  took    quarters  in  a  small 
public  house  some  miles  away.     A  Tory,  learning  of  this  fact, 
galloped   eighteen    miles    with    the   news  to  the  British,  and 
the  consequence  was  that  Lee,  in  dressing  gown  and  slippers, 
was  taken  prisoner   by  a  troop  of   British   dragoons.     From 
Lee's  subsequent  career  (§§  183,  184)  and  the  discovery  of  his 
correspondence,  it  now  seems  probable  that  he  already  had 
traitorous  designs. 

168.  Washington's  Difficulties  and  his  Retreat.  —  The  capture 
of  Lee  left  Sullivan  in  command  of  the  Northern  army,  and  that 
officer  moved  at  once  to  the  support  of  Washington ;  but  the 
difficulties  of  the  situation  seemed  overwhelming.     HOAVC  and 
Cornwallis  had  crossed  into  New  Jersey  with  a  force  more  than 
twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  Americans.     Moreover,  as  the 
terms  of  enlistment  expired,  Washington  found  it  almost  im 
possible  to  keep  his  ranks  full.     Still  worse,  Howe,  desiring  to 
take  advantage  of  the  apparent  lack  of  enthusiasm  on  the  part 
of  the  American  patriots,  now  made  a  final  effort  to  induce 
them  to  throw  down  their  arms.     This  was  done  under  a  prom 
ise  of  full  pardon  and  protection  to  all  who  should  abandon  the 
Continental  cause.      More  than  three  thousand  persons,  believ 
ing  there  was   no  possibility  of   success    for   the  Americans, 
yielded  to  these  allurements  and  deserted  to  the  British.     To 
ries  everywhere  now  emerged  from  their  obscurity  and  boldly 
asserted  their  allegiance  to  the  king.     Washington  could  not 
venture  battle  with  his  inferior  force,  but,  with  masterly  skill, 
he  slowly  withdrew  his  army,  crossing   stream   after   stream 
with  the  British  close  on  his  heels.     Even  the  broad  waters  of 


128 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1775  AND   1770. 


[§  169 


the  Delaware  did  not  baffle  him.     Pressed  hard  by  superior 
forces,  he  threw  his  army  across  the  river  and  destroyed  all  the 
boats  on  the  opposite  bank  for  nearly  one  hundred  miles.     His 
opponents  found  it  impossible  to 
follow,  and  decided  to  wait  for 
the  river  to  freeze  over. 

169.  Washington  turns  upon 
his  Enemy.  —  Howe  and  Corn 
wall!  s  thought  the  war  practically 
at  an  end.  Deciding  to  leave 


their  army  east  of  the  Delaware,  with  its  center  at  Trenton  and 
its  wings  at  Burlington  and  Princeton,  they  returned  to  New 
York  for  the  festivities  of  the  holidays,  where  Howe  was  to 
celebrate  the  knighthood  conferred  upon  him  for  the  capture 
of  New  York.  But  Washington  had  a  Christmas  surprise  in 
store  for  them.  Including  the  forces  of  Gates  and  Sullivan, 
he  now  commanded  about  six  thousand  men.  The  loose  dis 
position  of  Howe's  troops  gave  him  an  opportunity  which  he 


§  170]  THE   WAR   IN  NEW   JERSEY  129 

immediately  turned  to  account.  He  decided  by  a  secret  move 
ment  to  strike  a  hard  blow  at  the  British  center.  His  plan  was 
to  cross  the  Delaware  in  three  divisions.  The  right  wing, 
under  G-ates  and  Cadwalader,  was  to  attack  the  Hessians 
under  Donop  at  Burlington  ;  Ewing  was  to  cross  and  attack  the 
center  at  Trenton ;  while  Washington  himself,  with  the  left 
wing  six  miles  up  the  river,  was  to  cross  at  that  point  and 
march  down  on  the  other  side  to  attack  the  British  flank  and 
rear.  Gates  had  asked  and  been  allowed  to  go  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  was  already  intriguing  with  Congress  in  order  to  sup 
plant  Washington.  The  right  wing  and  the  center  found  the 
river,  filled  as  it  was  with  floating  ice,  too  difficult  to  cross,  but 
Washington's  determination  and  skill  at  once  showed  themselves. 

170.  Battle  of  Trenton. — Just  as  he  was  ready  for  the  ad 
vance,  news  came  that  his  right  and  center  had  failed,  and  yet, 
without  a  moment's  hesitation,  he  decided  himself  to  push  on 
with  all  the  greater  energy.1  Blocks  of  floating  ice  made  the 
crossing  next  to  impossible.  Colonel  Glover,  with  a  force  of 
Marblehead  fishermen,  was  put  in  charge  of  the  boats.  In  the 
course  of  ten  hours  he  succeeded  in  taking  twenty-five  hundred 
men  across  with  their  guns  and  munitions.  They  now  had  six 
miles  to  march  in  a  blinding  storm.  After  a  night  so  cold  that 
two  men  of  their  number  were  frozen  to  death,  they  reached 
Trenton  at  daybreak.  Planting  their  guns  so  as  to  rake  the 
streets,  they  made  escape  impossible.  Colonel  Rail,  of  the 
enemy,  and  seventeen  of  his  men  were  killed ;  the  others  sur 
rendered  (December  26).  Donop,  fearing  to  be  cut  off  by  the 
advance  of  Washington,  fell  back  to  Princeton.  Washington 
recrossed  the  river  with  his  prisoners,  but  on  the  29th  took  up 

1One  of  Washington's  captains,  in  his  memoirs,  relates  a  feat  which  illus 
trates  Washington's  spirit,  as  well  as  his  great  physical  strength.  He  says 
that,  as  they  were  breaking  camp  for  the  march,  two  soldiers  had  wound  up 
Washington's  tent  around  the  tent  pole,  and  were  trying  in  vain  to  lift  it  to 
the  top  of  a  high,  loaded  wagon.  Washington  came  along  in  fiery  impatience, 
and  seeing  their  fruitless  efforts,  seized  the  pole  in  the  middle  with  one  hand 
and  threw  it  far  ahove  his  head  upon  the  top  of  the  load. 


130  THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1775  AND  1776.  [§  171 

his  position  once  more  at  Trenton.     Thus  the  center  of  the 
British  army  was  destroyed. 

171.  Advance   of    Cornwallis.  —  Howe    and    Cornwallis,    so 
rudely  disturbed  in  the  midst  of  their  Christmas  festivities, 
saw  in  a  moment  that  a  blow  must  be  struck  to  recover  the  lost 
ground.     With  a  force  of  about  eight  thousand  men,  Cornwallis 
advanced  by  way  of  New  Brunswick  and  Princeton,  where  he 
established  magazines  and  supplies,  with  a  strong  force  to  guard 
them.     The  army,  harassed  along  every  mile  of  the  way  by 
sharpshooters,  reached  Trenton  on  the  2d  of  January.    Mean 
while  Washington  had  moved  in  a  southern  direction,  and  taken 
up  his  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Assanpink,  a  small 
stream  flowing  into  the  Delaware  on  the  north  side,  not  far 
south  of  Trenton.     The  crossings  were  guarded  with  such  care 
that  Cornwallis  decided  to  allow  his  men,  tired   from   their 
rapid  inarch,  to  rest  until  the  following  day.     His  plan  was  to 
attack  in  front  and  along  Washington's  right  flank,  and  so  force 
him  back  upon  the  Delaware,  where  he  would  be   obliged  to 
surrender.     After  observing  the  situation,  Cornwallis  went  to 
bed  in  high  spirits,  saying,  "At  last  we  have  run  down  the 
old  fox,  and  will  bag  him  in  the  morning." 

172.  The   Battle   of   Princeton.  —  But   in   the   morning   the 
"  old  fox  "  was  gone.     Ordering  a  force  of  men  to  keep  fires 
burning  along  the  front  of  the  camp,  and  to  make  a  show  of 
strengthening   the  breastworks,  Washington,    with   his   main 
army,  crossed  the  Assanpink,  and  passing  around  the  left  flank 
of  the  British,  fell  upon  the  force  at  Princeton  at  daybreak. 
The  movement,  brilliantly  conceived  and  carefully  planned,  was 
completely  successful.     The  British  force  at  Princeton,  after 
losing  about  five  hundred  men,  was  cut  in  two,  one  part  re 
treating  to  New  Brunswick  and  the  other  falling  back  to  Tren 
ton.     In  this  remarkable  fight  (January  3,  1777)  the  American 
loss  was  less  than  one  hundred. 

173.  Retreat   of   Cornwallis.  —  When    Cornwallis    found   an 
empty  camp  before  him  and  heard  the  sound  of  cannon  in  the 


§174] 


THE    WAR   IN  NEW  JERSEY. 


131 


direction  of  Princeton,  he  fell  back  at  once,  in  order  to  pro 
tect  his  stores.  At  Princeton  the  full  meaning  of  the  disaster 
was  revealed.  Washington,  at  no  time  strong  enough  to  risk  a 
general  battle,  now  contented  himself  with  destroying  bridges, 
harassing  the  enemy  at  every  point,  and  finally  taking  up  a 
commanding  position  on  the  heights  of  Morristown.  To  sup 
port  himself  on  either  flank,  he  ordered  Heath  to  come  down 
from  the  highlands  of  the  Hudson  to  Hackensack,  and  Putnam 
to  advance  from  Philadelphia  to  Trenton.  Cornwallis,  finding 
himself  thus  confronted,  withdrew  to  Paulus  Hook  and  New 
York.  Thus,  in  the  dead  of  winter,  Washington,  with  a  greatly 
inferior  force,  had  fought  two  successful  battles,  had  taken 
prisoners  numbering  more  than  a  third  of  his  whole  army,  and 
had  practically  driven  the  British  out  of  New  Jersey.  This 
campaign  saved  the  Revolution. 

174.   Influence  of   "Washington's   Success.  —  The  influence  of 
Washington's  success  was  shown  at  once  in  many  ways.     In 


Kft)scrH   OF 
DOLLAR, 

According 
Va  a  Refolu- 


.  §jjOne  Sixth  of  a  DOLLAR.^ 


Sprinted  by  Hall  &  Sellers,* 
in  Philadelphia.    1776. 


CONTINENTAL  CURRENCY. 


the  first  place  it  encouraged  men  to  reenlist.  The  period  for 
which  many  of  the  recruits  had  gone  into  the  army  had  ex 
pired  on  the  1st  of  January.  They  had  received  very  little 


132 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1775  AND  1776 


[§175 


pay,  and  the  paper  money  they  got  had  now  fallen  greatly  in 
value.     In  the  face  of  a  defeat,  few  would  have  reentered  the 
service;  but   for  the  payment  of  those  who  would  reenlist, 
Washington  pledged  his  own  fortune,  and  thus  succeeded  in 
keeping  his  army  intact.     Another  beneficial  effect  was  shown 
in  the  influence  exerted  upon  the  British  army  and  the  Tories. 
Large  numbers  of  Hessians  now  deserted,  in  order  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  offers  of  land  that  had  been  made  by  Con 
gress  ;  and  many  men  of 
doubtful  loyalty  who,  a 
few  months  before,  had 
accepted      the     pardon 
offered    by   Howe,   now 
made  patriotic  response 
to  the  counter-proclama 
tion  of  Washington,  re 
quiring  that  they  should 
either  retire  to  the  Brit 
ish    lines    or    take   the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
United  States. 

175.  Effects  of  the 
Campaign  in  Europe.  — 
But  the  most  important 
result  of  this  remarkable 
winter  campaign  was  its 
influence  on  the  vari 
ous  powers  of  Europe. 
Washington's  generalship  called  out  the  hearty  commendation 
of  Frederick  the  Great.  In  France  a  still  greater  interest  was 
awakened.  In  the  autumn  of  1776  Franklin  had  been  sent  to 
Paris  to  secure  a  treaty.  The  sympathies  of  Louis  XVI.  were 
with  George  III. ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  French  people 
had  hated  England  ever  since  the  fall  of  Quebec.  Throughout 
France  there  was  also  beginning  to  be  a  widespread  revolu- 


MARQUIS  DE  LAFAYETTE. 


§  176]  THE   WAR  IN   NEW  JERSEY.  133 

tionary  spirit.  The  disposition  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  United  States  greatly  increased  as  soon  as  there  was  any 
probability  of  success.  Though  the  French  government  still 
hesitated,  many  brave  officers,  such  as  Lafayette l  and  De 
Kalb,  privately  offered  their  services  to  the  American  cause. 
Lafayette,  not  yet  twenty  years  of  age  and  just  married,  threw 
himself  into  the  enterprise  with  unlimited  enthusiasm.  He 
fitted  out  a  ship  at  his  own  expense,  and,  leaving  wife  and 
friends  behind,  devoted  all  his  powers  to  the  new  cause.  Along 
with  ten  other  officers,  he  arrived  in  America  in  the  spring  of 
1777. 

176.  Reorganization  of  the  American  Army.  —  Congress  now 
reorganized  the  army  and  conferred  upon  Washington  powers 
that  were  practically  those  of  a  dictator.  It  also  called  for 
an  army  of  seventy-eight  thousand  men,  sixty-six  thousand 
from  the  states  and  twelve  thousand  to  be  raised  by  Washing 
ton  and  to  be  subject  only  to  national  control.  But  as  Con 
gress  had  no  power  to  enforce  its  laws,  the  full  number  of 
troops  called  for  was  never  provided.  The  army  was,  however, 
somewhat  enlarged  in  size  and  greatly  improved  in  quality. 


REFERENCES.  — The  same  as  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VI. 

1  Born,  September,  1757 ;  died,  May,  1834.  French  nobleman,  whose  sym 
pathy  for  the  American  colonies  was  early  excited  ;  landed  in  South  Carolina 
in  the  spring  of  1777 ;  was  appointed  major  general  in  July,  1777 ;  was  wounded 
at  Brandywine ;  served  at  Monmouth  and  in  Rhode  Island ;  sat  on  court- 
martial  which  tried  Andre' ;  commanded  with  much  skill  in  Virginia  against 
Arnold  and  Cornwallis  in  1781 ;  returned  to  France  at  close  of  the  war,  but 
came  to  America  for  a  short  visit  in  1784 ;  commanded  the  National  Guard 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1789;  was  removed  by  the 
Jacobins  in  1792;  escaped  to  Belgium,  where  he  was  seized;  was  confined  in 
Prussian  and  Austrian  prisons  till  1797 ;  remained  in  retirement  during  the 
Napoleonic  regime ;  visited  United  States  in  1824-1825 ;  commanded  National 
Guard  of  France  in  the  Revolution  of  1830. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE    CAMPAIGN    OF    1777. 
THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  THE   CENTER. 

177.  Plans  of  the  British  for  1777.  —  The  British  saw  that 
if  the  next  campaign  was  to  be  successful  the  war  must  be 
pushed  forward  on  a  much  larger  scale.     They  determined  on 
three   important   movements.     General   Howe   was   to  be  re- 
enforced  so  that  while  holding  New  York  he  could  open  the 
Hudson  to  Albany.      From  the  north  a  new  and  more  powerful 
expedition,  under  General  Burgoyne,  was  to  repeat  the  attempt 
of  Sir  Guy  Carleton.     A  third  expedition,  under  Colonel  St. 
Leger,  was  to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence  into  Lake  Ontario,  and 
from  Oswego,  after  taking  Fort  Stanwix  and  clearing  the  Valley 
of  the  Mohawk,  unite  with  Burgoyne  and  Howe  in  the  vicinity 
of  Albany.     This  comprehensive  plan,  if  successful,  would  not 
only  separate  New  England  from  the  rest  of  the  colonies,  but 
would  restore  to  the  British  the  State  of  New  York. 

178.  Burgoyne' s  Difficulties  and  Disappointments.  —  Burgoyne,1 
ascending  the  St.  Lawrence,  entered   Lake   Champlain   with 
about  eight  thousand  men,  consisting  partly  of  British  veterans 
and  partly  of  Hessians.     He  had  no  difficulty  in  taking  Fort 
Ticonderoga,  for  General  Gates  in  providing  for  its  defense 
had  committed  the  same  blunder  that  Howe  had  committed  in 


iBorn,  1723;  died,  1792.  Member  of  the  House  of  Commons  and  lieuten 
ant  general  in  the  army ;  served  in  Canada  early  in  the  war ;  returned  to 
England  after  the  "  Convention  "  at  Saratoga ;  published  State  of  the  Expedi 
tion,  in  1780;  published  a  number  of  poems  and  comedies  of  some  temporary 
note. 

135 


136 


THE   CAMPAIGN  OF  1777. 


[§178 


neglecting  Dorchester  Heights  (§  149).  On  a  high,  rocky  point 
just  south  of  the  fort,  General  Phillips,  one  of  Burgoyne's 
officers,  succeeded  in  planting  siege  guns;  and  Gates  saw  at 
once  that  he  must  withdraw.  But  Burgoyne  had  no  further 
success.  He  had  expected  large  reinforcements  from  the  Tory 
inhabitants,  but  in  this  he  was  disappointed.  The  preparations 

for  meeting  the  Brit 
ish  had  been  admira 
bly  planned  by  Gen 
eral  Philip  Schuyler,1 
who  was  in  com 
mand  of  the  Northern 
division  of  the  army, 
with  headquarters  at 
Albany.  His  policy 
was  to  impede  the 
march  of  the  enemy 
until  the  Americans 
had  time  to  gather 
strength.  When  Bur 
goyne  began  to  press 
his  way  southward, 
he  found  that  trees 
had  been  felled  across 
every  road,  and  the 
best  he  could  do  was 
to  advance  at  the  rate  of  only  about  a  mile  a  day.  Mean 
while  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  round  about  were  rising, 
and  sharpshooters  began  to  harass  him  from  every  direction. 
When  he  reached  Whitehall  he  realized  that  he  was  in  danger 
of  failing  for  want  of  provisions. 

i  Born,  1733 ;  died,  1804.  Fought  in  French  and  Indian  War ;  was  member  of 
the  First  Continental  Congress ;  was  included  in  the  first  list  of  major  gen 
erals  in  1775 ;  was  assigned  to  department  of  northern  New  York ;  was  super 
seded  by  Gates ;  resigned  in  1779,  but  continued  to  be  a  trusted  adviser  of 
Washington,  and  was  appointed  Indian  commissioner;  was  United  States 
senator,  1789-1791  and  1797-1798. 


GENERAL  PHILIP  SCHUYLER. 


179] 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  THE   CENTER. 


137 


179.  The  Bennington  Expedition.  —  Hearing  that  the  Ameri 
cans  had  large  stores  at  Bennington,  Burgoyne  now  sent  a 
force  of  about  one  thousand  men,  under  two  Hessian  officers, 
Bauni  and  Breymann,  to  capture  them.  The  news  of  the 
expedition  spread  rapidly,  and  hundreds  of  patriots  flocked  to 
the  defense.  Among  them  was  "  good "  Parson  Allen,  of 
Pittsfield,  Massachusetts, 
who  led  an  eager  company 
from  the  Berkshire  Hills. 
They  were  commanded  by 
General  John  Stark,1  who 
had  already  distinguished 
himself  in  the  old  French 
War,  and  at  Bunker  Hill, 
at  Trenton,  and  at  Prince 
ton.  With  his  reenforce- 
ments,  Stark' s  command 
now  outnumbered  Baum's 
by  two  to  one.  Baum,  see 
ing  that  resistance  was  to 
be  offered,  drew  up  his 
troops  on  high  ground  near  GENERAL  JOHN  STARK. 

the  town  and  awaited  an  attack.  On  the  morning  of  August 
16,  Stark  stealthily  threw  a  part  of  his  men  into  the  rear, 
while  in  front  he  led  the  attack  in  person.  The  Germans, 
thinking  the  troops  in  the  rear  were  those  "blessed"  Tories 
they  had  been  looking  for,  were  thrown  into  confusion  on  the 
first  attack  from  front  and  rear,  and  were  soon  forced  to  sur 
render.  Baum  was  mortally  wounded,  and  Breymann,  on  his 
way  to  the  support  of  Baum,  was  met  and  defeated  by  a  force 
under  General  Seth  Warner.  This  exploit,  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  war,  cost  the  British  two  hundred  and  seven 

1  Born,  1728 ;  died,  1822.  After  the  service  briefly  indicated  in  the  text, 
he  resigned  in  1777 ;  was  demanded  as  leader  by  the  New  Hampshire  militia  at 
the  time  of  Burgoyne's  invasion ;  was  advanced  to  the  grade  of  brigadier 
general  and  served  till  the  end  of  the  war. 


138 


THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1777. 


[§  186 


killed  and  wounded,  and  more  than  seven  hundred  prisoners, 
besides  four  field-pieces  and  a  thousand  stand  of  arms.     The 

loss  of  the  Americans 
amounted  to  forty 
killed  and  forty-two 
wounded. 

180.  General  Schuy- 
ler    Superseded. — 

There  was  much  jeal 
ousy  between  New 
England  and  New 
York,  and  much 
consequent  intrigue. 
General  Gates  had 
long  been  scheming 
with  Congress  for 
his  own  advance 
ment.  He  and  his 
friends  were  now  able 
to  point  out  what  the 
people  of  New  Eng 
land  could  do  at  Bennington,  as  contrasted  with  what  General 
Schuyler  had  been  able  to  do  in  New  York.  The  result  of  the 
intrigue  was  that  General  Schuyler  was  removed  and  Gates 
was  placed  in  command  in  his  stead. 

181.  Movements  of  Burgoyne. — No  general  change  of  policy 
resulted  from  Schuyler's  removal.  Burgoyne,  finding  himself 
in  danger  of  being  hemmed  in  at  Whitehall,  was  forced  to  move 
toward  the  west  and  across  the  Hudson.  Lincoln,  with  the 
Nevr  England  militia,  closed  in  on  his  rear,  while  Putnam 
arrived  with  a  force  from  the  Highlands  and  Arnold  returned 
from  the  Valley  of  the  Mohawk,  where  he  had  aided  in  re 
pulsing  St.  Leger.  It  became  daily  more  evident  that  unless 
relief  should  arrive  from  General  Howe,  Burgoyne  must  either 
defeat  the  Americans  or  surrender  his  whole  army.  No  re- 


(TENKRAI*  JOHN  BURGOYNE. 


§  182]  THE    STRUGGLE   FOR    THE    CENTER.  139 

enforcements  came,  and  two  vigorous  attempts  at  Freeman's 
Farm  and  Bemis  Heights  were  frustrated  by  the  skill  and  vigor 
of  the  troops  commanded  by  Arnold  and  Morgan.  The  source  of 
supplies  for  the  British  was  now  cut  off ;  and,  attempting  to  re 
treat  by  way  of  Saratoga,  Burgoyne  found  his  army  completely 
surrounded  by  a  force  more  than  twice  the  size  of  his  own.  On 
the  17th  of  October  he  was  obliged  to  capitulate,  and  surren 
dered  with  his  entire  force  of  more  than  seven  thousand  men. 

Burgoyne  demanded,  and  Gates  consented,  that  the  final  act 
should  be  deemed  a  "  convention  "  instead  of  a  surrender  or 
capitulation.  Hence  British  historians  are  accustomed  to  refer 
to  the  event  as  the  "Convention  of  Saratoga."  The  terms, 
however,  were  not  essentially  different.  The  troops  were 
allowed  to  march  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  to  march 
to  Boston,  where  they  were  to  embark  for  home.  An  oath  was 
required  that  they  would  not  again  serve  in  the  American 
war.  But  a  misunderstanding  soon  ensued,  and  Congress 
repudiated  the  convention,  in  consequence  of  which  Burgoyne 
and  his  army  were  not  sent  home,  but  retained  as  prisoners. 
Burgoyne,  however,  was  permitted  to  go  in  the  following 
spring.  He  soon  entered  Parliament  and  became  a  stanch 
defender  of  the  American  cause.  The  army  was  transferred  to 
a  camp  at  Charlottesville,  Virginia.  Before  1783  they  had  dis 
persed  and  many  had  settled  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

182.  St.  Leger's  Campaign.  —  St.  Leger  fared  scarcely  better 
in  his  Western  campaign.  Advancing  early  in  the  spring  from 
Oswego,  he  reached,  on  August  3,  Fort  Stanwix,  an  important 
point  in  Oneida  County,  now  the  city  of  Borne.  He  at  once  began 
the  siege.  A  few  days  later  a  force  of  about  eight  hundred  militia, 
gathered  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  by  General  Herkimer,  a  veteran 
of  the  French  war,  advanced  for  the  relief  of  the  fort.  Near 
Oriskany,  however,  his  force  fell  into  an  ambuscade  prepared 
by  Sir  John  Johnson,  the  leader  of  the  Tories,  and  Brant,  the 
greatest  of  Mohawk  chiefs.  The  battle  was  not  decisive,  but 
the  confidence  of  the  Indians  and  Tories  was  completely  broken, 


140  THE   CAMPAIGN  OF   1777.  [§  183 

and  the  Indians  rapidly  deserted.  General  Herkimer,  severely 
wounded,  died  some  days  afterward.1  The  panic  of  the  Brit 
ish  was  increased  by  the  approach  of  a  force  under  Arnold, 
which  had  been  sent  from  Albany  by  Schuyler.  St.  Leger, 
attacked  by  a  vigorous  sortie  from  the  fort  on  the  one  side,  and 
by  the  surrounding  patriots  on  the  other,  saw  no  chance  of  suc 
cess,  and  accordingly  beat  a  hasty  retreat.2  Thus  both  the 
British  expeditions  in  the  North  were  complete  failures. 

183.  Blunder  of  the  British  Government.  —  It  had  been  the 
design  of  the  British  government  that  General  Howe,  while 
holding  New  York  with  a  part  of  his  force,  should  ascend  the 
Hudson  with  the  other  part  for  the  reeiiforcement  of  Burgoyne ; 
but  the  British  minister  of  war,  instead  of  sending  peremptory 
orders,  left  much  to  the  discretion  of  Howe.3  This  gave  an 

1  After  General  Herkimer  was  wounded,  he  had  himself  placed  at  the  foot 
of  a  tree,  where  he  continued  to  issue  commands  with  stentorian  voice.    At 
the  close  of  the  battle  he  was  taken  to  his  house,  about  thirty-five  miles  away, 
and  died  after  an  unskillful  operation.    A  tall  granite  obelisk  was  erected  to 
his  memory,  near  the  site  of  this  battle. 

2  The  repulse  of  St.  Leger  and  the  relief  of  Fort  Stanwix  possess  pecul 
iar  interest  from  the  fact,  that  on  that  spot  and  on  that  day  (August  6,  1777) 
the  American  flag,  substantially  as  we  now  know  it,  was  first  raised.    Con 
gress 'had  adopted  the  national  flag  in  June,  1777.     After    a  sortie  which  had 
been  successful  in  driving  back  the  besieging  force  of  St.  Leger,  Colonel 
Willett,  the  patriot  in  command,  hoisted  a  captured  British  flag,  and  put  over 
it  a  rude  banner  of  stars  and  stripes  hastily  patched  together  from  a  white 
shirt,  a  blue  jacket,  and  a  red  flannel  petticoat  of  a  soldier's  wife. 

3  While  the  state  of  the  country  and  the  roads  made  it  impossible  for  the 
British  divisions  to  support,  or  even  communicate  with,  each  other,  the  Amer 
icans,  working  from  within,  could  strike  in  either  direction,  wherever  the  blow 
would  be  the  most  effective.    As  the  bodies  of  British  troops  were  to  work  from 
without,  toward  a  common  center,  it  was  of  the  highest  importance  to  them 
that  each  should  be  under  specific  orders  when  and  how  to  move.    This  was 
understood  by  the  British  ministry,  but  for  some  reason  long  unaccountable, 
Howe  received  no  specific  orders  whatever.     Such  an  order  was  really  made, 
but  when  it  had  been  prepared  for  the  signature  of  the  British  minister  of 
war,  Lord  George  Germain,  he  petulantly  objected  to  the  clerical  work,  and 
ordered  that  a  fair  copy  should  be  made.     That  night  the  minister  went  to 
his  country  seat,  and  the  copy  was  placed  in  a  pigeonhole  to  await  his  return. 
It  was  forgotten  until  long  after  Burgoyne  surrendered.    The  delayed  order 
directed  Howe  to  ascend  the  Hudson  and  cooperate  with  Burgoyne. 


§  185]  THE   STRUGGLE  FOR  THE   CENTER.  141 

opportunity  for  the  scheming  designs  of  General  Lee,  who  was 
still  a  prisoner  of  war  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  Lee  had 
formerly  been  an  officer  in  the  British  army,  and  Howe  had 
serious  thoughts  of  hanging  him  for  desertion ;  but  Washing 
ton  wrote  to  Howe  that  he  held  five  Hessian  officers,  whom  he 
should  treat  as  hostages  for  Lee.  The  British,  thereupon,  not 
daring  to  risk  the  anger  of  the  Hessians  that  would  surely  fol 
low  an  execution,  concluded  to  hold  Lee  simply  as  prisoner  of 
war,  subject  to  exchange.  But  Lee,  meantime,  hoping  to  gain 
the  favor  of  Great  Britain,  drew  up  an  elaborate  plan,  advising 
the  British  in  regard  to  the  best  method  of  assuring  success. 
This  treasonable  paper,  indorsed  as  "Mr.  Lee's  plan,  March 
29,  1777,"  was  not  discovered  until  eighty  years  after  the  war. 

184.  General   Lee's   Advice.  —  The  advice   of  Lee  was   that 
Howe  direct  all  his  energies  to  an  attack  upon  Philadelphia; 
and  accordingly,  as  soon  as  the  British  commander  heard  of  the 
success   of   Burgoyne  in   taking  Ticonderoga,  he  decided   to 
adopt  this  plan.     His  first  purpose  was,  while  leaving  New 
York  in  command  of  a  small  force,  to  advance  with  the  greater 
part  of  his  army  across  New  Jersey.     But  Washington,  detect 
ing  his  purpose,  threw  up  strong  intrenchments  at  Middlebrook, 
directly  athwart  his  path.     Howe  thought  it  not  prudent  either 
to  attack  directly,  or,  by  marching  around,  to  leave  his  opponent 
in  the  rear.     After  nearly  two  months  of  unsuccessful  effort  to 
bring  Washington  to  battle,  he  changed  his  plan,  and  about  the 
middle  of  July  withdrew  his  army  to  Staten  Island. 

185.  Movements  of  Howe.  —  It  became   evident  at  once  to 
Washington  that  Howe's  purpose  was  to  put  his  force  upon  a 
fleet  and  either  ascend  the  Hudson  or  sail  to  the  south.     The 
American  commander  was  not  left  very  long  in  doubt.     Leav 
ing  eighteen  hundred  men  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  New 
York,  Howe   put  to  sea.     Washington  at  once  inferred  that 
Howe  had  gone  south,  but  it  was  necessary  to  guard  against 
the  possibility  of  his  turning  suddenly  northward  and  advanc 
ing  up  the  Hudson.     On  account  of  supposed  obstacles  in  the 


142  THE   CAMPAIGN   OF   1777.  [§186 

Delaware  below  Philadelphia,  Howe  passed  on  one  hundred 
miles  farther,  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  landed  his  army  at 
Elkton.  Hearing  of  Howe's  arrival,  Washington  turned  south 
to  meet  him.  In  order  to  prevent  a  panic  in  Philadelphia,  he 
marched  his  army  of  eleven  thousand  men  through  the  city. 

186.  Battle  of  the  Brandywine.  —  It  was  evident  that  Howe 
would  advance  upon  Philadelphia  without  delay.  Though 
Washington  had  only  eleven  thousand  men  with  whom  to  meet 
Howe's  eighteen  thousand,  he  decided  to  contest  the  advance 
in  a  battle.  Accordingly  the  Americans  were  posted  along 
the  north  bank  of  Brandywine  Creek,  with  their  center  at 
Chadd's  Ford.  The  position  was  admirably  chosen,  and  the 
forces  were  skillfully  posted.  But  the  British  decided  to  force 
the  passage  by  means  of  a  flank  movement.  On  the  morn 
ing  of  September  11,  Cornwallis,  who  commanded  the  British 
left,  marched  up  the  river  some  eighteen  miles  by  the  Lan 
caster  road  and  crossed  at  Jeffrey's  Ford,  intending  to  pass 
around  and  attack  the  Americans  in  the  rear.  The  success  of 
such  a  movement  depended  upon  its  secrecy.  Washington, 
fortunately,  learned  of  the  operation  in  time  to  order  Sullivan 
to  change  his  front  and  meet  Cornwallis  as  he  approached. 
But  for  this  discovery  the  Americans  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  routed  and  a  large  part  of  the  army  captured.  Sullivan 
fought  with  great  bravery  and  skill,  but  he  was  not  able  to 
repulse  the  enemy.  In  order  to  support  Sullivan  the  whole 
American  army  fell  back,  but  it  fell  back  in  good  order,  chiefly 
through  the  masterly  skill  of  Greene.  The  Americans  lost  a 
little  more  than  a  thousand,  and  the  loss  of  the  British  was 
about  six  hundred.  The  skill  of  the  Americans  in  the  retreat 
was  shown  by  the  fact  that  Washington  opposed  the  advance 
of  the  British  so  vigorously  that  fifteen  days  were  consumed 
by  Howe  in  a  march  of  twenty-six  miles  to  the  city.  On  Sep 
tember  26  the  British  moved  into  Philadelphia.  Cornwallis 
was  left  in  command  of  the  city,  while  Howe  established  his 
headquarters  at  the  adjacent  village  of  Germantown. 


§  187]  THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   THE   CENTER.  143 

187.   Needs  of  the  British;   Battle  of  Germantown.  —  As  the 

American  army  had  not  been  crippled,  it  was  easy  for  Wash 
ington  to  cut  off  the  supplies  of  his  enemy  on  the  landward 
side.  The  British  were  therefore  dependent  upon  vessels  from 
the  sea.  To  clear  the  river  of  obstructions  a  force  was  at  once 
sent  from  Philadelphia.  Washington  determined  to  take  ad 
vantage  of  this  advance  and  to  attack  the  main  army  at  Ger 
mantown,  while  the  British  were  thus  temporarily  weakened. 
Such  extraordinary  audacity  on  the  part  of  an  army  which  had 
just  been  defeated  seems  never  to  have  entered  the  minds  of  the 
British.  But  on  the  evening  of  the  3d  of  October,  Washing 
ton  began  his-  inarch,  with  the  purpose  of  nothing  less  than  the 
destruction  or  capture  of  Howe's  force.  The  town  was  to  be 
approached  by  four  roads,  the  army  consisting  of  two  divisions, 
under  Greene  and  Sullivan.  The  advance  arrived  at  the  out 
skirts  of  the  village  at  daybreak,  but  unfortunately  a  heavy 
fog  came  up,  so  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  different  lines  to 
recognize  one  another.  The  Americans  advanced  successfully 
in  four  different  columns  and  seemed  likely  to  push  the  British 
back  upon  the  river  and  completely  overwhelm  them ;  but,  in 
the  center  of  the  field,  one  of  the  briga'des  of  General  Greene's 
division  came  into  collision  with  one  from  that  of  General 
Sullivan.  Each,  supposing  the  enemy  had  been  met,  fired  upon 
the  other.1  A  confusion  resulted  which  gave  the  British  time  to 
recover,  and  the  Americans  were  finally  repulsed.  This  battle 
is  universally  considered  as  one  of  the  boldest  fought  by  the 
Americans,  and  it  came  wonderfully  near  to  complete  success. 
Howe  and  Cornwallis  were  now  left  for  the  winter  in  Phila 
delphia,  while  Washington  took  up  his  winter  quarters  at 
Valley  Forge,  only  a  few  miles  away,  where  he  could  prevent 
the  British  from  foraging  the  country. 


REFERENCES.  — The  same  as  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VI. 

1  Stephen,  whose  brigade  fired  upon  that  of  Wayne,  was  tried  by  court- 
martial  and  dismissed  from  the  service. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

THE  FRENCH   ALLIANCE  AND   THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF 
1778   AND    1779. 

A   WINTER   OF   DISCOURAGEMENT. 

188.  Change   in  the  Commissariat   of  the  Army.  —  Nearly  a 
year  before  the  close  of  the  campaigns  just  described,  Congress 
had  very  unwisely  determined  to  make  a  change  in  the  control 
of  the  commissariat  of  the  army.     Up  to  this  time  it  had  been 
a  part  of  the  military  service  and  had  been  successfully  managed 
by  Colonel  Trumbull ;  but  it  was  now  decided  to  appoint  two 
officers,  —  one  for  procuring  the  supplies,  and  another  for  dis 
tributing  them.     This  system  of  divided  responsibility  caused 
the  greatest  discomfort «to  the  army. 

189.  The  Winter  at  Valley  Forge.  —  Washington's  force,  in 
its  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  was  subjected  to  terrible 
suffering.      On   the  22d  of    December  two   brigades   became 
mutinous,  because  for  three  days  they  had  gone  without  bread 
and  for  two  days  without  meat.     On  the  following  day  Wash 
ington  informed  Congress  that  he  had  in  camp  two  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  ninety-eight  men  "  unfit  for  duty  because 
they  are   barefooted  and  otherwise  naked."     Even  when  his 
army  first  marched  into  winter  quarters,  their  route  could  be 
traced  on  the  snow  by  the  blood  that  oozed  from  their  bare 
and  frost-bitten  feet ;  and  matters  grew  worse  as  the  winter 
advanced.     This  condition  was  not  owing  to  any  actual  want 
of    supplies,   for    it   was    afterward   found    that    "hogsheads 
of   shoes,    stockings,   and    clothing   were    lying    at    different 
places  on  the  roads  and  in  the  woods,  perishing  for  want  of 

H4 


190] 


A   WINTER   OF   DISCOURAGEMENT. 


145 


teams  or  of  money  to  pay  the  teamsters."  It  was  in  con 
sequence  of  gross  mismanagement  on  the  part  of  the  com 
missariat,  that  the  winter  at  Valley  Forge  was  one  of  such 
memorable  suffering  and  death. 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

190.  The  Coming  of  Baron  von  Steuben.  — But  the  winter,  sad 
as  it  was  in  most  respects,  brought  one  great  advantage. 
Agents  in  Europe  succeeded  in  persuading  one  of  the  most 
efficient  soldiers  from  the  staff  of  Frederick  the  Great  to  offer 
his  experience  to  the  American  cause.  This  was  Baron  von 


146 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1778  AND   1779. 


[§191 


Steuben.1     He  had  gone  through  every  grade  of  the  Prussian 
service  up  to  the  rank  of  marshal,  and  his  knowledge  of  mili- 

-^^^^^M^MBKtoM^^  ^  aMs        ...^^^^.'    tary  drill  caused  him 

to  be  appointed  in 
spector  general  of  the 
American  armies.  It 
would  be  difficult  to 
overestimate  the  value 
of  his  services.  He 
found  the  raw  Ameri 
can  troops  completely 
unaccustomed  to  the 
exact  military  meth 
ods  of  Europe,  and  he 
set  himself  to  teach 
them  all  the  arts  and 
methods  of  the  reg 
ular  soldier.  Taking 
a  musket  in  his  hand, 
this  Prussian  officer 
of  highest  rank  de 
voted  himself  from 
morning  till  night  to 
the  most  elementary,  as  well  as  the  most  intricate,  parts  of 
military  drill.  Thus,  in  the  course  of  the  terrible  winter  at 
Valley  Forge,  Baron  von  Steuben  brought  the  army  into  a  con 
dition  of  efficiency  it  had  never  known  before. 

191.  General  Causes  of  Discontent.  —  During  this  winter  there 
were  numerous  matters  that  occasioned  great  anxiety.  It  is  at 

1  Born  in  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  1730 ;  died,  1794.  Fought  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  Succession,  also  throughout  the  Seven  Years'  War ;  received  a  very 
exalted  position  from  Frederick  the  Great,  which  he  gave  up  in  1778  for  ser 
vice  in  America ;  was  appointed  inspector  general,  and  rendered  invaluable 
service  at  Valley  Forge  and  elsewhere  in  drilling  the  American  troops ;  com 
manded  the  left  wing  at  Monmouth;  was  member  of  the  board  which  con 
demned  Andre;  settled  in  central  New  York  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and 
received  from  Congress  a  large  grant  of  land  near  Utica. 


BARON  VON  STEUBEN. 


§  192]  A   WINTER   OF   DISCOURAGEMENT.  147 

the  present  time  easy  to  see  that  Washington's  plan  of  conduct 
ing  the  war  was  the  only  one  that  gave  any  promise  of  success. 
But  it  was  one  that  could  be  easily  misunderstood  and  mis 
represented.  It  was  possible  for  unfriendly  critics  to  say  that 
he  had  been  driven  from  New  York  ;  that  he  had  lost  Phila 
delphia;  and  that  he  had  been  defeated  in  two  important 
battles.  It  was  also  easy  to  overlook  the  far  more  important 
fact  that  he  had  kept  his  army  intact,  and  that  he  had  managed 
to  fight  and  to  avoid  fighting  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  the 
enemy  occupied  at  the  center  so  that  the  great  object  of  the 
British  campaign,  the  opening  of  the  Hudson,  was  completely 
frustrated. 

192.  Intrigues  of  Gates  and  Others. — The  country  was  not 
lacking  in  people  who  were  ready  to  seize  upon  opportunities 
for  slander  and  intrigue.  John  Hancock,  the  first  president 
of  Congress,  had  been  ambitious  for  the  position  of  commander 
in  chief,  and,  as  many  charged,  had,  in  consequence  of  his  fail 
ure  to  obtain  that  office,  resigned  his  presidency  in  disgust. 
The  impetuous  Samuel  Adams,  and  even  John  Adams,  had 
uttered  loud  complaints  over  what  was  called  the  "Fabian 
policy,"  and  had  clamored  for  a  short  and  decisive  war.  The 
success  of  the  Northern  army  had  enabled  Gates,1  who  was 
the  arch-intriguer  of  the  time,  to  present  his  claims  with  some 
show  of  plausibility.  By  distributing  promises  throughout  the 
army  he  created  a  widespread  sentiment  in  behalf  of  Washing 
ton's  removal  and  his  own  appointment.  His  friends  sent 
letters  from  every  quarter  to  members  of  Congress,  representing 
that  before  Gates  had  commanded  the  army  of  the  North,  Bur- 
goyne  had  had  uninterrupted  success,  and  that  immediately 
after  Gates's  appointment  the  coils  were  rapidly  thrown  about 

1  Born  in  England,  1728 ;  died,  1806.  Was  captain  in  Braddock's  Expedition ; 
was  appointed  adjutant  general  in  the  colonial  army  in  1775  ;  superseded 
Schuyler  as  commander  of  the  Northern  forces  in  1777 ;  conspired  to  gain  the 
chief  command  in  1778 ;  placed  in  command  of  the  Southern  army  in  1780 ;  was 
overwhelmingly  defeated  at  Camden ;  was  retired  from  command,  and  was 
iiot  acquitted  by  court-martial  till  1782. 


148  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF   1778  AND   1779.  [§193 

the  British  commander  until  he  was  compelled  to  surrender. 

Of  course  no  mention  was  made  of  the  fact  that  the  victory 

at  Bennington  was 
solely  due  to  Stark 
and  his  New  Eng 
land  volunteers ; 
that  the  repulse  of 
St.  Leger  was  due 
to  Herkimer  and 
Arnold ;  and  that 
the  two  victories 
over  Burgoyne  were 
due  chiefly  to  the 
vigor  and  skill  of 
Arnold  and  Morgan. 

193.  The  Conway 
Cabal.  —  The  most 
conspicuous  man 
ager  of  the  intrigue 
was  an  Irish-Ameri- 

GENERAL  HOBAT.O  GATES.  Can    °fflcer>  ^  the 

name    of    Conway, 

who  had  not  been  promoted  by  Washington  as  rapidly  as 
he  had  desired.  Congress,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of 
Washington,  was  disposed  to  advance  Conway  and  a  number 
of  other  subordinate  officers.  Washington  did  not  hesitate  to 
express  his  disapproval,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  say,  "  It 
will  be  impossible  for  me  to  be  of  any  further  service  if  such 
insuperable  difficulties  are  thrown  in  my  way."  This  was  very 
justly  interpreted  as  a  threat  to  resign,  and  it  was  effective. 
But  the  anger  of  Conway  toward  Washington  was  naturally 
increased.  The  intrigues  that  followed  have  passed  into  his 
tory  as  the  "Conway  Cabal."  The  only  success  of  the  move 
ment  was  to  induce  Congress  to  reorganize  the  "  Board  of 
War "  and  make  Gates  its  president.  Public  sentiment  was 


§196]  PROSPECTS  BRIGHTEN.  149 

so  overwhelmingly  favorable  to  Washington,  that  Congress 
ventured  to  go  no  farther.  Extracts  from  some  of  the  letters 
were  published  and  thus  the  whole  spirit  of  the  intrigue  was 
revealed.  The  scornful  silence  of  Washington,  who  never  in 
his  life  condescended  to  defend  himself,  reacted  greatly  in  his 
favor.  In  the  end,  the  commander  in  chief  was  stronger  in 
his  position  than  ever.  Gates  resigned  in  disgust  and  returned 
to  his  plantation  in  Virginia. 

PROSPECTS   BRIGHTEN. 

194.  Treaty  with  France.  —  America  had  now  single-handed 
carried  on  the  war  for  more  than  two  yoars,  but  the  defeat  of 
Burgoyne  and  St.  Leger  in  the  North,  and  the  vigor  with  which 
Washington  conducted  the  campaign  in  New  Jersey  and  about 
Philadelphia,  convinced  the  French  that  the  time  for  recognition 
had  arrived.    Treaties  were  signed  on  February  6, 1778,  between 
France  and  the  United  States,  in  which  France  pledged  herself 
to  furnish  ships,  as  well  as  men,  and  the  Americans,  on  their 
part,  agreed  not  to  cease  the  conflict  until  Great  Britain  acknowl 
edged  their  independence.     Thereafter  England  was  at  war 
with  France,  as  well  as  with  America. 

195.  Howe    succeeded  by  Sir   Henry   Clinton.  —  The   French 
alliance  obliged  the  British  to  change  their  plan  of   action. 
Howe,  who  had   never   believed  in   the    British  policy,  now 
resigned  and   returned  to  England,  and  Sir    Henry   Clinton 
succeeded  him  in  command.    Anticipating  the  approach  of  the 
French  fleet,  and  evidently  fearing  that  the  French  and  Ameri 
cans  together  would  prove  too  strong  for  the  British  at  New 
York,  Clinton  decided  to  evacuate  Philadelphia.     Washington, 
whose  army,  notwithstanding  the  sufferings  at  Valley  Forge, 
showed  the  effects  of  the  careful  drilling  by  Baron  von  Steuben, 
determined  to  attack  the  British  on  their  northern  march. 

196.  The  Battle  of  Monmouth.  —  The  place  chosen  was  Mon- 
mouth,   and   the   battle  took   place   on  Sunday,   the  28th  of 
June.      The   northern   portion   of   the   American    force    was 


150  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1778   AND   1779.  [§  197 

ordered  to  attack  the  British  on  their  flank,  while  Washington 
himself,  by  closing  in  upon  their  rear  with  the  southern  divi 
sion,  hoped  to  overwhelm  them.  General  Charles  Lee,  whose 
treason  was  still  unknown  to  AVashington,  had  been  exchanged, 
and,  as  senior  major  general,  had  command  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  army,  consisting  of  about  six  thousand  men. 
Washington  ordered  him  to  attack  Clinton's  flank  with  vigor, 
while  the  commander  in  chief  himself,  with  a  still  larger 
force,  was  to  attack  at  the  moment  when  the  enemy  had  been 
thrown  into  confusion.  Lee,  however,  on  reaching  the  British, 
made  only  a  feeble  show  of  advance  and  then  ordered  his 
troops  to  withdraw.  Washington,  informed  of  the  situation 
by  a  messenger  from  Lafayette,  rushed  forward  in  furious 
anger  and  demanded  an  explanation.  As  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  his  retreat  could  be  given,  Washington  ordered  Lee 
to  the  rear,  and,  galloping  along  the  disordered  mass  of  retreat 
ing  troops,  shouted  for  a  halt,  and  then  reformed  the  lines. 
The  results  of  the  winter's  drill  were  at  once  felt,  for  in  the 
face  of  the  enemy  and  under  a  hard  fire  the  American  troops 
fell  into  order,  wheeled  about,  and  rushed  forward  to  a  new 
attack.  1'he  British  were  driven  from  the  ground  they  had 
gained  ;  but  night  came  on,  and  the  two  armies  occupied  the 
positions  held  before  the  battle.  Before  morning  the  British 
resumed  their  way  to  New  York.1  After  the  battle,  Lee  was 
tried  by  a  court-martial,  consisting  of  several  of  the  most 
eminent  officers  in  the  army,  and  was  dismissed  from  the 
service. 

197.  First  Efforts  of  the  French.  —  The  first  efforts  of  the 
French  to  assist  the  Americans  were  not  fortunate.  Count 
D'Estaing,  a  kinsman  of  Lafayette,  arrived  on  the  8th  of 
July  with  a  squadron  of  twelve  ships  of  the  line  and  six 
frigates,  and  a  land  force  on  board  of  four  thousand  men. 


i  The  effect  of  the  evacuation  of  Philadelphia  and  the  battle  of  Monmouth 
was  naturally  very  disheartening  to  the  British  army.  As  many  as  two  thou 
sand  of  Clinton's  soldiers,  chiefly  Hessians,  deserted  within  a  week. 


§  198]  PROSPECTS   BRIGHTEN.  151 

His  fleet  was  larger  than  that  of  Clinton;  but  as  two  of  his 
vessels  could  not  cross  the  New  York  bar,  he  was  not  strong 
enough  to  venture  an  attack.  The  next  movement  was  an 
effort  to  cooperate  with  the  land  force  of  General  Sullivan  in 
reducing  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  This  point  had  been  taken 
by  the  British  soon  after  their  expulsion  from  Boston,  and 
had  been  held  to  the  present  time.  Sullivan  now  approached 
with  a  large  force  from  the  land  side,  and  D'Estaing  was  to 
prevent  reinforcements  by  sea.  It  appeared  .certain  that  the 
post  would  be  taken.  But  soon  Lord  Howe  approached  with 
his  fleet,  and  D'Estaing  moved  out  for  action.  In  the  nick 
of  time  one  of  the  most  terrific  storms  ever  known  came  on 
and  dispersed  both  fleets.  D'Estaing  felt  compelled  to  put 
into  Boston  for  repairs.  While  he  was  there  word  came  that 
Clinton  had  sent  five  thousand  men  to  relieve  the  Newport 
garrison.  Lafayette  galloped  seventy  miles  in  seven  hours  to 
obtain  aid  from  D'Estaing,  but  it  was  too  late.  The  siege  had 
to  be  raised,  and  soon  D'Estaing  moved  off  to  the  Wesf  Indies. 
These  movements  of  the  French  were  very  severely  criticised 
by  the  Americans,  and  jn  consequence,  at  OHQ  Jtime  the-jFrench 
admiral  thought  seriously  of  taking  his  fleet  back  to  France  in 
disgust.  It  was  only  the  great  tact  and  skill  of  Washington 
that  persuaded  him  to  remain.  His  going  to  the  West  Indies 
was  not  without  importance,  for  Clinton  felt  obliged  to  send  five 
thousand  troops  for  the  support  of  the  British  in  the  islands. 

198.  British  Movement  on  the  South.  —  The  efforts  thus  far 
made  to  destroy  the  revolutionary  army  by  striking  at  its 
center  having  failed,  the  British  determined  in  the  spring  of 
1779  upon  a  new  policy.  It  was  decided  to  attack  the  South, 
partly  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  Southern  states  com 
pletely  under  their  control,  and  partly  for  the  purpose  of  draw 
ing  off  a  portion  of  Washington's  army.  In  the  execution  of 
this  plan  they  had  no  difficulty  in  overrunning  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina,  but  Washington  understood  perfectly  well  that 
the  temporary  loss  of  the  Southern  states  would  not  mean  the 


152 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF    1778  AND   1779. 


[§199 


GENERAL  ANTHONY  WAYNE. 


loss  of  the  cause  if 
the  Middle  states  and 
New  England  could 
be  kept  together. 
He  therefore  refused 
to  weaken  his  grip 
upon  the  Hudson. 
In  July,  General  An: 
thony  Wayne1  took 
by  storm  the  seem 
ingly  impregnable  po 
sition  at  Stony  Point 
on  the  Hudson,  in  one 
of  the  most  brilliant 
assaults  of  the  war. 
His  fearless  dash, 
which  was  made  at 
midnight,  caused  him 
to  be  known  as  "  Mad 
Anthony." 


CONDITIONS   WEST   OF  THE   ALLEGHANIES. 

199.  British  Control  in  the  West.  —  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  vast  region  west  of  the  mountains  was  already  the 
field  of  much  strife  between  the  Indians  and  the  few  settlers 
that  had  pushed  their  way  along  the  valleys  into  what  was  then 
the  far  West.  The  territory  between  the  mountains  and  the 


1  Born,  1745 ;  died,  1796.  Early  became  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  commander  of  a  regiment  in  the  Canadian 
Invasion  of  1775-1776 ;  commanded  at  Ticonderoga ;  was  appointed  brigadier 
general,  and  rendered  valuable  service  at  the  Brandy  wine,  at  German  town,  and 
at  Monmouth;  stormed  Stony  Point,  July  15, 1779;  suppressed  mutiny  at  Mor- 
ristown  in  January,  1781 ;  rendered  important  service  in  Georgia  and  Vir 
ginia  in  1781-1782 ;  was  made  major  general,  and  overwhelmed  the  Indiana 
at  Fallen  Timbers,  1794,  which  led  to  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Indians  ID 
Y795. 


§  200]        CONDITIONS   WEST  OF  THE   ALLEGHANIES.  153 


WAYNE'S  DISPATCH  TO  WASHINGTON. 


Mississippi  River,  a  region  twice  as  large  as  the  German 
Empire,  was  still  an  almost  unbroken  wilderness.  French 
settlements  had  been  established  at  Detroit,  at  Vincennes  on 
the  Wabash,  and  at 
Natchez,  Kaskaskia, 
and  Cahokia  on  the 
Mississippi.  But 
these  fortified  ham 
lets  since  the  fall  of 
Quebec  had  been  con 
trolled  by  British 
garrisons.  Though 
the  region  was  thus 
under  British  do 
minion,  it  was 
claimed  by  Massa 
chusetts,  Connecti 
cut,  New  York,  Vir 
ginia,  Maryland,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  by 
authority  of  their  original  charters.  The  possession  of  the 
whole  region  was  therefore  involved  in  the  war. 

200.  Settlements  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  —  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  were  the  first  to  send  explorers  and  settlers 
into  this  distant  region.  Before  the  outbreak  '  of  the  war, 
Daniel  Boone l  had  explored  the  Kentucky  River,  and  Virginia 
surveyors  had  gone  down  the  Ohio  as  far  as  the  present  site  of 
Louisville,  which  was  soon  after  named  in  honor  of  our  new 
ally,  the  reigning  king  of  France,  Louis  XVI.  Virginians 
entered  the  country  as  settlers,  and  their  sympathy  with  the 
revolutionary  movement  was  so  intense  that  they  named  one  of 

1  Born,  1735 ;  died,  1820.  Was  a  daring  and  skillful  hunter  and  explorer  in 
North  Carolina ;  went  into  the  region  that  is  now  Kentucky  in  1769  ;  became 
exceptionally  skillful  as  an  Indian  fighter;  overwhelmed  the  Indians  at  the 
battle  of  Blue  Licks  in  1782;  after  countless  adventures  and  hairbreadth 
escapes,  passed  his  last  days  in  poverty  in  Missouri,  though  a  grant  of  land 
Was  tardily  given  him  by  Congress. 


154 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1778   AND   1779. 


[§201 


their  principal  towns  Lexington,  in  honor  of  the  village  where 
the  first  shots  had  been  fired.  The  pioneers  of  most  influence 
in  Tennessee  were  James  Robertson  and  John  Sevier,  who 
played  a  part  as  explorers  and  organizers  much  like  the  parts 

played  by  Daniel  Boone  and 
James  Harrod  in  Kentucky. 
In  both  of  these  regions  laws 
were  enacted  and  courts 
instituted,  and  when  the 
Continental  Congress  met, 
delegates  were  sent  to  it  to 
represent  the  interests  of 
the  new  settlements.  The 
one  was  called  the  State  of 
Transylvania  and  the  other 
the  County  of  Kentucky. 

201.     Border    Warfare.— 

The  early  years  of  these  set 
tlements  were  periods  of  con 
stant  hardship  and  of  strife 
with  the  Indians.  Even 
before  the  Revolutionary 
War  broke  out,  the  Indians  organized  for  systematic  resistance. 
This  was  the  result  partly  of  outrageous  treatment  by  the  white 
settlers,  and  partly  of  repeated  Indian  depredations. 

202.  Lord  Dunmore's  War.  —  Lord  Dunmore,  the  last  royal 
governor  of  Virginia,  sent  out  in  1773  an  injudicious  order 
which  led  to  an  outbreak  of  hostilities  all  along  the  line.  The 
immediate  cause  of  the  war  was  the  fiendish  act  of  a  wretch  by 
the  name  of  Greathouse,  who  decoyed  the  family  of  the  friendly 
Indian  chief,  Logan,  consisting  of  nine  men,  women,  and  chil 
dren,  into  his  rum  shop,  and  after  getting  them  intoxicated, 
butchered  them  all  in  cold  blood.  The  justly  outraged  Indians 
rushed  to  arms  from  all  quarters.  The  war  which  followed 
was  characterized  by  the  murdering  of  women  and  children 


DANIEL  BOONE. 


§  204]        CONDITIONS   WEST   OF  THE   ALLEGHANIES.  155 

and  the  burning  of  cabins  and  wigwams,  until  it  was  ended  by 
the  decisive  battle  of  Point  Pleasant  on  the  Great  Kanawha,  on 
October  10,  1774.  The  Indians,  commanded  by  the  Shawnee 
chief,  Cornstalk,  were-  utterly  defeated  by  the  settlers  under 
Andrew  Lewis,  and  were  glad  to  secure  peace  by  surrendering 
all  their  claims  to  lands  south  of  the  Ohio. 

203.  Warfare  in  Tennessee.  —  The  westward  movement  from 
North  Carolina  through  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains  into  the 
country  now  known    as   Tennessee  was  also  the  occasion  of 
numerous   conflicts.     In   1770   the   settlers   had   reached   the 
Watauga.   Forts  were  erected,  and  the  settlement  soon  assumed 
a  thriving  condition.     But  conflicts  were  not  long  postponed. 
The   most   warlike   and   powerful  of   the   Southern  tribes  of 
Indians  were  the  Cherokees,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo 
lution  they  took  sides  with  the  British.      The  Indians  even 
advanced   into    South  Carolina  and  Georgia;    but   they  were 
unable  to  hold  their  ground,  and  when  in  1776  they  attacked 
the  Watauga  settlement,  they  were  so  completely  defeated  by 
the  troops  of  Robertson  and  Sevier  that  they  soon  afterward 
were  willing  to  make  peace.     In  1777  they  renounced  the  larger 
part  of  their  claims  to  lands  between  the  Tennessee  and  the 
Cumberland.     Thus  Tennessee,  as  well  as  Kentucky,  was  secure 
for  the  future  Union. 

204.  Organization  of  Tories  and  Indians  in  the  Northwest  — 

Meanwrhile  matters  of  no  less  importance  were  occurring  on  the 
northwest  frontier.  Washington  fully  understood  the  neces 
sity  of  taking  from  the  British  as  much  as  possible  of  that 
vast  territory  which  extends  from  the  Catskills  to  the  Missis 
sippi  River,  and  which  had  been  made  a  part  of  Canada  by 
the  Quebec  Act  (§  136).  This  was  by  no  means  an  easy  task. 
The  Six  Nations  (§  3),  constituting  the  most  powerful  Indian 
confederation  ever  known,  were  under  the  immediate  lead 
ership  of  the  greatest  of  all  Indian  chiefs,  Joseph  Brant, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Sir  John  Johnson,  the  most  for 
midable  of  the  Tories.  Brant  had  been  liberally  educated  in 


156  THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1778  AND   1779.  [§  20S 

Mr.  Wheelock's  School,  afterward  Dartmouth  College,  and  had 
even  visited  England  and  had  dined  with  Burke  and  Sheridan ; 
but  his  education  seemed  only  to  sharpen  his  wits  and  make 
him  the  better  able  to  use  the  characteristics  of  other  Indians. 
Though  he  exerted  his  influence  to  prevent  the  killing  of  women 
and  children,  as  a  strategist  he  was  unequaled  among  sav 
ages,  and  on  the  battlefield  he  could  out-yell  any  other  chief. 
Throughout  the  West  the  Indians  had  generally  combined 
with  the  Tories  and  the  British.  Two  forces  were  now  organ 
ized,  one  at  Niagara  and  one  at  Detroit,  for  carrying  out 
their  designs. 

205.  The  Wyoming  and  Cherry  Valley  Massacres. — In  the 
summer   of  1778   twelve   hundred   Tories  and   Iroquois,   led 
by  John  Butler,  advanced  stealthily  from  Niagara  toward  the 
southeast  and  fell  upon  the  peaceful  inhabitants  of  the  Wyo 
ming  Valley  in  Pennsylvania.     Hundreds  of  innocent  inhabit 
ants  were  tortured  and  scalped,  and  the  horrors  of  the  massacre 
sent  a  pang  into  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world.     Similar  out 
rages   occurred   at   Cherry  Valley  and   elsewhere,  and   every 
settlement  was  in  danger.   Prisoners  who  refused  to  give  infor 
mation  were  put  to  torture  with  ingenious  cruelty. 

206.  Sullivan's  Expedition.  —  In  order  to  destroy  the  power 
of  the  Six  Nations  and  put  an  end  to  this  savage  method  of 
warfare,  Washington  decided  to  send  out  a  strong  force  in  the 
summer  of  1779.     The  command  of  the  expedition,  having  been 
declined  by  Gates,  devolved  upon  Sullivan,1  who  had  orders  to 
lay  waste  the  entire  country  of  the  Iroquois.     The  right  wing 
of  his  army,  under  General  James  Clinton,  advanced  up  the 


1  Born  in  New  Hampshire,  1740;  died,  1795.  Major  general  of  militia  be 
fore  the  war ;  delegate  of  New  Hampshire  to  First  Continental  Congress ;  was 
appointed  brigadier  general  in  1775 ;  served  at  siege  of  Boston  and  in  expedi 
tion  into  Canada ;  major  general  in  1776;  was  one  of  the  principal  commanders 
at  Brooklyn,  Trenton,  and  Princeton;  led  the  right  wing  at  Brandywine  and 
Germantown  ;  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Iroquois  in  1779;  was  an  active 
Federalist  in  the  New  Hampshire  Convention  of  1788. 


§207]       CONDITIONS   WEST  OF  THE   ALLEGHANIES. 


157 


valley  of  the  Mohawk,  while  Sullivan  himself,  with  a  force  of 
about  five  thousand  men,  pushed  into  the  valley  of  the  Susque- 
hanna.      Both  forces  destroyed  the  Indian  villages  and  the 
growing  crops  wherever  they  went. 
Finally,  meeting  the  united  forces 
of     Johnson,     Butler,     and    Brant 
near  Newtown  (now  Elmira),  Sulli 
van   achieved   a  complete   victory, 
August  29.1 


GENERAL  JOHN  SULLIVAN. 


207.  Destruction  of  the  Six  Na~ 
tions.  —  Sullivan's  forces  then  ad 
vanced  northward  in  two  divisions, 
burning  villages,  cutting  down  fruit 
trees,  and  destroying  the  growing 
corn  in  all  directions.  After  a  suc 
cessful  march  of  more  than  seven 

hundred  miles,  during  which  he  not  only  temporarily,  but  per 
manently,  through  his  destruction  of  their  harvests,  broke  the 
power  of  the  Six  Nations,  Sullivan  reached  New  Jersey  in 
October.  The  suffering  which  resulted  to  the  Indians  from 
this  expedition  was  greatly  increased  by  the  intense  cold  of 
the  following  winter.2  The  horrors  of  the  period,  however, 
cannot  be  understood  without  a  study  of  painful  and  revolting 
details.  In  no  part  of  the  country  was  the  suffering  greater 
than  in  central  and  eastern  New  York  during  this  contest  of 
Indians,  Tories,  and  patriots.  In  Tryon  County  the  population 
was  reduced  to  one  third  of  its  former  number,  and  among 
those  who  remained  there  are  said  to  have  been  three  hundred 
widows  and  two  thousand  orphans. 

1  After  the  battle  so  many  horses  and  ponies  were  slain  by  Sullivan's 
order,  that  the  number  of  skulls  found  at  a  later  period  caused  the  place 
to  be  called  Horseheads,  the  name  by  which  the  locality  has  ever  since  been 
known. 

2  New  York  Harbor  froze  over,  and  cannon  and  men,  as  well  as  supplies, 
were  freely  moved  on  the  ice  between  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Staten 
Island. 


158 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1778  AND   1779. 


[§  208 


THE   CONQUEST  OF  THE   NORTHWEST. 

208.  George  Rogers  Clark.  —  An  expedition  of  even  greater 
importance  had  been  undertaken  the  previous  year,  still  farther 

west,  by  George  Eogers 
Clark.1  Colonel  Hamilton, 
commander  of  the  British 
at  Detroit,  had  planned  a 
series  of  movements  with 
the  intention  of  taking 
possession  of  the  whole 
western  region  north  of  the 
Ohio.  Clark,  a  Virginian 
who  had  settled  in  Ken 
tucky,  had  become  thor 
oughly  acquainted  with 
frontier  manners  and 
methods.  In  the  autumn 
of  1777,  he  learned  of  Bur- 
goyne's  surrender.  Divin 
ing  the  importance  of  the 
West,  he  at  once  sent 
scouts  throughout  the 
region  known  as  the  Illi 
nois  country.  As  a  result  of  the  information  thus  received, 
this  adventurous  frontiersman,  only  twenty-five  years  old, 
formed  the  bold  project  of  conquering  from  the  British  the 
whole  of  the  vast  region  extending  from  the  Alleghanies  to 
the  Mississippi. 

209.  Clark's  Expedition. — Accordingly,  having  secured  per 
mission  from  the  authorities  of  Virginia,  Clark,  taking  a  force 
of   one  hundred   and   eighty  men,   with   boats   and   artillery, 
started   in   the    spring   of   1778,  at  Pittsburg,    for    a  voyage 

i  Born,  1752  ;  died,  1818.  Went  from  Virginia  to  Kentucky  in  1775 ;  became 
a  leader  against  the  hostile  Indians  and  the  British;  gained  the  Northwest 
for  the  Union  in  1778. 


GENERAL  GEORGE  ROGERS  CLARK. 


§  211]  THE   VICTORIES   OF  PAUL  JONES.  159 

down  the  river  to  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi. 
He  had  no  difficulty  in  capturing  Kaskaskia,  a  small  post 
not  very  far  north  of  the  modern  Cairo.  Thence  he  sent  mes 
sengers  to  Vincennes,  which  agreed  to  submit  to  him.  Later, 
however,  he  learned  that  the  British  under  Colonel  Hamilton 
had  retaken  the  fort.  Sending  his  cannon  on  a  boat  to  patrol 
the  Ohio  and  the  Wabash,  Clark  took  his  men  across  Illinois 
in  a  winter's  march,  often  through  mud  and  water  knee  deep, 
and  appeared  before  Vincennes.  The  village  at  once  yielded, 
and  the  people  united  with  Clark  in  assaulting  the  fort. 
Hamilton  was  soon  obliged  to  surrender  with  his  whole  force. 
By  this  brilliant  expedition,  the  frontier  was  extended  to  the 
Mississippi  Eiver.  The  importance  of  the  movement  could 
hardly  be  understood  at  the  time,  but  the  history  of  the  next 
hundred  years  revealed  it  in  many  very  interesting  ways. 

THE   VICTORIES   OF  PAUL   JONES. 

210.  Early  Condition  of  the  Navy.  —  Before  the  war  the  Ameri 
cans  had  no  navy,  for  there  was  no  national  government,  and  the 
individual  colonies,  under  the  Navigation  Acts,  had  no  oppor 
tunities  for  the  development  of  foreign  trade.     Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities,  however,  Congress  provided  for  arming 
vessels,  not  so  much  to  fight  the  British  warships  as  to  prey  upon 
British  commerce.     Franklin,  as  minister  to  France  after  1778, 
was  authorized  by  Congress  to  commission  vessels  to  scour  the 
waters  for  British  prizes. 

211.  The  Bon  Homme  Richard.  — The  most  famous  of  these 
cruisers  was  a  merchant  ship  that  had  been  hastily  fitted  up 
for  war  and  given   the  name  of  Bon  Homme  Richard.     This 
vessel,  commanded  by  John  Paul  Jones,1  a  Scotchman  who  had 

iBorn,  1747;  died,  1792.  Came  from  Scotland  to  Virginia  shortly  before 
the  Kevolutionary  War;  entered  the  service  of  his  adopted  country  with 
great  enthusiasm  ;  commissioned  first  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  and  made  a 
number  of  successful  cruises;  went  to  France  in  1777,  where  he  was  given 
command  first  of  the  Ranger,  and  then  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard ;  he 
devastated  St.  George's  Channel,  and  finally  fought  the  Serapis  ;  was  thanked 


160 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1778  AND   1779. 


[§211 


renounced  his  country  and  lived  some  years  in  America,  made 
havoc  among  the  British  merchantmen,  especially  in  the  British 
and  Irish  Channels  and  off  the  east  coast  of  Scotland.  On  the 
23d  of  September,  1779,  Jones,  with  two  small  accompany 
ing  vessels,  met  the 
British  frigate  Sera- 
pis,  with  similar  sup 
port,  convoying  a  small 
fleet  of  merchant 
men,  off  Flamborough 
Head.  The  Serapis  was 
slightly  more  powerful 
than  the  Richard,  but 
Jones  did  not  hesitate 
to  attack,  and  the  re 
sult  was  one  of  the 
most  obstinate  and 
bloody  battles  in  all 
naval  history.  Jones 
received  no  assistance 
from  his  attendant 
ships,  which  even  fired 
into  the  Hi  chard.  Af 
ter  both  ships  had 
been  partially  disabled, 
Jones  ran  alongside  the 

Serapis  and  lashed  them  together.  From  that  moment  a  terrible 
battle  with  canister,  musket  balls,  hand  grenades,  and  cutlasses 
went  on,  until  more  than  half  of  all  the  men  engaged  were  either 
killed  or  disabled.  The  Serapis  finally  surrendered,  but  it  was 
immediately  found  that  the  Richard  had  been  so  riddled  with 
shot  that  it  was  sinking,  and  Jones  therefore  was  obliged  to 
transfer  his  men  to  the  other  vessel.  A  few  hours  later  the 
Richard  went  down. 


CAPTAIN  JOHN  PAUL  JONES. 


by  Congress  and  given  a  sword  by  France;  became  a  rear  admiral  in  the 
Russian  navy,  and  died  at  Paris. 


§  212]  THE   VICTORIES   OF  PAUL  JONES.  161 

212.  Importance  of  Jones's  Victory.  —  This  desperate  naval 
battle  was  important  for  two  reasons :  first,  it  everywhere  gave 
the  Americans  a  reputation  as  sailors ;  and  secondly,  it  led  to  an 
important  international  dispute.  Jones  took  the  Serapis  into  a 
port  in  Holland.  The  British  at  once  demanded  that  the  com 
mander  of  the  Richard  should  be  given  up  to  be  tried  as  a  pirate. 
The  Dutch  refused,  on  the  ground  that  Jones  had  done  only 
what  the  British  had  long  been  doing.  This,  with  some  other 
complications,  led  to  war  between  Holland  and  Great  Britain. 
The  English,  in  consequence,  were  then  at  war  with  Holland, 
as  well  as  with  America  and  France.  Spain  was  also  drawn 
in  as  the  ally  of  France.  Russia  had  long  been  apparently  on 
the  point  of  joining  in  the  contest,  but  the  Empress  Catherine, 
before  taking  a  final  step,  wrote  a  personal  letter  of  inquiry  to 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  advised  her  to  keep  out  of  the  trouble. 
Thus  England,  left  without  a  single  ally,  found  herself  confronted 
by  three  of  the  most  powerful  naval  forces  of  continental  Europe. 
The  united  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  even  without  the  help  of 
Holland,  were  scarcely  weaker  than  the  British  fleet,  and  they 
tvt  once  threatened,  while  the  English  were  occupied  in  America, 
not  only  to  destroy  the  commerce  of  England  in  the  open  seas, 
but  also  to  recover  Gibraltar,  and  to  overwhelm  all  the  English 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies.  The  influence  of  these  alliances 
on  the  American  war  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  while 
in  1779  the  British  had  three  hundred  and  fourteen  thousand 
men  under  arms,  not  a  tenth  of  that  number  were  at  any  time 
in  America. 

REFERENCES.  —  The  same  as  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VI. 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1780  AND  1781. 

THE    WAR   IN  THE    SOUTH. 

213.  Clinton's  Success  in  the  South.  —  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  even 
without  a  very  large  force,  found  it  possible  to  carry  out  his 
designs  in  the  South  with  energy  and  success.    Leaving  Knyp- 
hausen  a  part  of  his  force  to  defend  New  York,  he  started, 
December  26,  1779,  with  eight  thousand  men,  for  the  South. 
Savannah  fell  into  his  hands,  and   a  little  later  he  invested 
Charleston.     General   Lincoln  made  the  great  mistake  of  al 
lowing  himself  with  five  thousand  men  to  be  shut  up  in  that 
city  with  no  means  of  escape,  and  accordingly  he  was  forced 
to  surrender  on  the  12th  of  May,  1780,  with  his  whole  army. 
This  was  the  severest  blow  the  Americans  had  received.     Clin 
ton  at  once  put  Lord  Cornwallis  in  command,  after  issuing  a 
proclamation,  threatening  to  deal  with  all  who  did  not  return 
to  allegiance  as  traitors  and  rebels.      He  then  went  back  to 
New  York.     South  Carolina  was  soon  overrun  by  the  troops  of 
Cornwallis,  Tarleton,  and  Ferguson. 

214.  Northward  Movement  of  the  British.  —  The  American 
standards,  however,  were  kept  flying  by  the  heroic  deeds  of 
the  partisan  generals,  Marion  and  Sumter.     The  British  ad 
vanced  northward,  hoping  to  find  very  little  opposition  before 
reaching  Virginia.     Washington  recommended  the  appointment 
of  Greene  to  the  command  of  the  Southern   army;  'but  the 
intriguers  were  successful,  and  Congress  recalled  Gates  from 
his  retirement,  in  the  hope  that  the  experience  of  Burgoyne 

162 


§214] 


THE   WAR   IN  THE   SOUTH. 


163 


would  be  repeated  by  Cornwallis.1  But  in  North  Carolina 
there  had  been  no  Schuyler  to  plan  the  campaign  in  advance, 
and  there  was  no 
Arnold  or  Morgan  to 
assist  in  carrying  it 
out.  Gates  revealed 
his  •  inefficiency  at 
every  step  ;  and  when 
.the  two  armies  finally 
caine  together,  on  the 
16th  of  August,  1780, 
his  troops  suffered  at 
Camden  the  most  dis 
astrous  defeat  ever 
inflicted  on  an  Ameri 
can  army.  Though 
the  American  force 
was  superior  to  the 
British,  it  was  routed, 
driven  in  utter  con 
fusion  from  the  field, 
and  dispersed.  Gates 
himself,  after  com 
mitting  a  succession-  of  gross  blunders,  crowned  his  igno 
miny  by  joining  in  the  panic  and  finally  leaving  the  army 
to  its  fate.  In  four  days  he  reached  Hillsborough,  some  two 
hundred  miles  away.  Thus  the  worst  fears  of  Washington 
were  fully  realized,  and  the  whole  South  was  practically  in 

1  Born,  1737 ;  died,  1806.  Served  in  the  Seven  Years'  War ;  favored  the 
Americans  during  the  preliminary  discussions  in  Parliament ;  was  made  lieu 
tenant  general,  and  sent  to  America  in  1776;  fought  at  Long  Island;  was 
defeated  at  Princeton ;  decided  the  victory  by  a  flank  movement  at  the  Brandy- 
wine  ;  served  at  German  town  and  Monmouth  ;  overwhelmed  Gates  at  Camden, 
1780 ;  defeated  Greene  at  Guilford  Court  House,  1781 ;  was  so  outgeneralled  that 
he  practically  lost  the  South  and  retreated  into  Virginia,  where  he  was  over 
whelmed  by  Lafayette  and  Washington  at  Yorktown,  1781 ;  was  governor  gen 
eral  in  India,  178(5-1793;  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1798-1801 ;  is  properly 
considered  the  ablest  of  the  British  generals  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 


LORD  CORNWALLIS. 


164  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1780  AND  1781.  |_§  215 

the  grasp  of  the  British.    Clinton  might  well  suppose  the  end  to 
be  near  at  hand. 


THE  TREASON  OF  BENEDICT  ARNOLD. 

215.  Growth  of  Arnold's  Disaffection. — As  if  to  complete  a 
year  of  disasters,  the  country  received  a  terrible  shock  in  the 
treason  of  one  of  its  foremost   officers.     Benedict  Arnold,  who 
had  been  one  of  the  most  skillful,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
energetic  of  commanders,  had  been  slighted  in  various  ways. 
Washington  had  repeatedly  recommended  that  he  be  advanced 
from  brigadier  to  major  general,  but  Congress  promoted  five 
officers  of  inferior  rank  over  him.     These  facts  not  unnaturally 
soured  his  temper,  so  that  he  was  inclined  to  find  fault  with 
everything.     While  he  was  in  this  mood  Washington  assigned 
him   to  the  command  in  Philadelphia,  after  the  withdrawal 
of  Clinton,  where  he  was  noted  for  luxurious  tastes  and  ex 
travagant  methods  of  life.      Meanwhile   he   became  engaged 
to  Margaret  Shippen,  a  beautiful  daughter  of  one  of  the  most 
prominent  Tory  families  in  Philadelphia.    Before  many  months, 
his  views  had  drifted  completely  over  to  those  of  the  moderate 
Tory  party.     After  the   surrender  of  Burgoyne,  the   British 
government  had  offered   the   colonies   all   the   constitutional 
guarantees  they  had  asked  for  before  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence,  and  Arnold,  as  well  as  the  Tories  generally,  believed 
that  these  terms  should  have  been  accepted. 

216.  Charges   by    Congress    against    Arnold.  —  Arnold    was 
seriously  contemplating  the  advisability  of  resigning  his  post, 
owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  Executive  Council,  when  charges  of 
peculation  and  misconduct  were  brought  against  him.     There 
upon  he  promptly  demanded  an  investigation.     He  was  ac 
quitted,  not  only  by  a  committee  of  Congress,  but  afterward 
by  a  court-martial,  of  all  the'  charges  excepting  two  of  very 
trifling  importance.    But  he  felt  insulted  and  persecuted.    His 
hatred  of  Congress  became  intense,  and  accordingly,  in  the 
course  of  the  six   months   from   January  to  July,  1780,  he 


§  218]       '    THE   TREASON  OF    BENEDICT   ARNOLD.  165 

devised  one  of  the  most  infamous  schemes  in  history.  He 
entered  into  correspondence  with  the  British  commander,  for 
the  purpose  of  betraying  the  American  cause.  His  letters, 
signed  "  Gustavus,"  were  answered  by  the  British  adjutant 
general,  Major  John  Andre,  over  the  signature  "  John 
Anderson.'7  But  nothing  definite  came  of  the  matter  until 
Arnold  determined  to  ask  Washington  for  the  command  of 
West  Point,  in  order  that  this  most  important  stronghold  in 
the  whole  country  might  be  turned  over  to  the  enemy  for  a 
good  price.  His  request  was  granted,  and  his  nefarious  plans 
came  alarmingly  near  to  success. 

217.  Meeting  of  Arnold  and  Andre.  —  In  September  the  agree 
ment  had  advanced  so  far  that  a  personal  interview  between 
the  officers  in  correspondence   was  thought   desirable.     The 
British    fleet,    temporarily  under   the    command  of    Admiral 
Rodney,  who  had  recently  come  from  the  West  Indies,  showed 
signs  of  great  activity.     It  was  the  intention  at  an  opportune 
moment  to  sail  up  the  Hudson  and  make  a  show  of  attacking 
the   fort.      Arnold   was   to   surrender   it,  with   only   a  faint 
appearance  of  resistance.     The  American  traitor  was  to  sell 
his  country  for  fifty  thousand  dollars  and  a  commission  in  the 
British  army.     On  the  18th  of  September,  Washington  left  the 
fort  for  a  conference  with  Rochambeau  at  Hartford ;  and  this 
absence  afforded  the  coveted  opportunity.     Andre,  ascending 
the  Hudson  in  the  British  ship  Vulture  to  a  point  near  the 
fort,  went  ashore  and  passed  the  night  with  Arnold  a  few 
miles  below  the  fortress.     After  some  delays  the  agreement 
was  completed,  but  in  returning  Andre  was  obliged  to  cross 
and  go  down  the  river  along  the  eastern  shore. 

218.  Arrest  of  Andre*.  —  At  Tarry  town,  in  a  strip  of  neutral 
territory  between  the  two  armies,  he  was  arrested  by  three 
young  men  headed  by  John  Paulding.     One  of  the  party  had 
on  a  Hessian  uniform,  and  when  they  confronted  Andre,  who 
was  clad  in  citizen's  dress,  he  accosted  them  as  friends,  sup 
posing  they  were  British.     They  immediately  declared  them- 


166 


THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF    1780   AND    1781. 


[§  2 


selves  to  be  Americans,  however,  and  roughly  ordered  him  to 
dismount.  Proceeding  to  search  him,  they  found  the  fatal 
articles  of  agreement  in  his  boots.  As,  however,  they  were 
unsigned,  Colonel  Jameson,  to  whom  the  documents  and 
the  prisoner  were  delivered,  decided  to  forward  the  papers 
to  Washington,  and  to  send  a  message  concerning  the  affair  to 
Arnold. 

219.  Escape  of  Arnold.  —  Washington  returned  to  West  Point, 
September  25,  and  received  the  papers  soon  after  his  arrival. 
The  letter  had  reached  Arnold  only  in  time  to  enable  him  to 
escape  by  taking  a  boat  and  rowing  swiftly  down  to  the  British 
ship  which  was  awaiting  Andre.     When  Washington  read  the 
documents  he  burst  into  tears,  and  with  choking  voice  disclosed 
the  affair  to  Lafayette  and  Knox  and  the  other  officers  about 
him. 

220.  Andre's   Execution.  —  Andre  was  put   upon  trial  by  a 
court-martial  consisting  of  fourteen  officers,  including  Greene, 

Steuben,  and  Lafayette,  and  was 
pronounced  guilty.  Though  every 
effort  was  made  by  Clinton  to  save 
his  life,  Washington  was  inflexible, 
and,  on  the  morning  of  October  2, 
he  died  upon  the  gallows  the  death 
of  a  spy.  Though  the  English 
have  been  inclined  to  dispute  the 
justice  of  Washington's  action, 
the  latest  and  most  judicious  of 
British  historians  of  this  period, 
Mr.  Lecky,  after  a  full  examina 
tion  of  the  facts,  reaches  the  con 
clusion  that  his  condemnation  was 
justified  by  the  usages  of  war.  Benedict  Arnold's  treason  has 
properly  given  his  name  an  immortality  of  infamy. 


PLACE  OF  ANDRE'S  EXECUTION. 


§  222]  CAUSES  OF  DISCOURAGEMENT.  167 

CAUSES   OF  DISCOURAGEMENT. 

221.  Discontent  in  the  Army.  —  The  treason  of  Arnold  was 
followed  by  events  in  the  army  which  added  to  the  general 
distress  and  anxiety.     The  best  of  the  troops  were  those  that 
had  enlisted  during  the  hopeful  period  just  after  Burgoyne's 
surrender,  in  1777.     The  term  of  enlistment  was  "  three  years, 
or  during  the  war."     The  troops  claimed  that,  as  the  three 
years  would  expire  at  the  end  of  December,  they  would  then  be 
free.     The  officers  interpreted  the  law  as  meaning  that  in  case 
the  war  should  continue  more  than  three  years,  the  soldiers 
would  be   bound  to  service  until  its  close.     The  army  had 
many  causes  of  complaint.     Paper  money  issued  by  Congress 
had  now  become  nearly  worthless.     With  this  money  Congress 
was  reluctant  to  pay  the  troops,  but  there  was  no  other.     At 
the  end  of  December  many  of  the  regiments  had  received  no 
pay  for  sixteen  months,  and  supplies  of  clothing  and  shoes 
were  so  small  that  when  January  approached,  many  soldiers 
were  barefooted  and  in  rags.     The  winter  of  1780-1781  saw 
scarcely  less  suffering  than  did  the  winter  at  Valley  Forge. 

222.  Spirit  of  Mutiny.  — On  New  Year's  Day,  1781,  thirteen 
hundred  Pennsylvania  troops  claimed  that  their  time  had  ex 
pired,  and,  seizing  six   field  pieces,  set  out  for  Philadelphia 
to  secure  their  rights  from  Congress.     After  much  parleying, 
Congress,  through  its  president,  promised  to  give  them  certifi 
cates  of  indebtedness  and  their  formal  discharge.    Thus  it  was 
settled  that  the  men  who  had  enlisted  on  the  ambiguous  terms 
might  go  when  the  three  years  had  expired.     By  this  decision 
Washington's  army  not  only  lost  its  best  troops,  but  was  agi 
tated  by  the  mutinous  spirit  of  others  who  were  tempted  to  try 
the  same  method.     On  the  20th  of  January  a  part  of  the  New 
Jersey  troops  mutinied  without  any  adequate  reason,  and  'were 
not  subdued  until  they  were  met  by  a  brigade  of  troops  from 
Massachusetts.     The  insurgents  were  soon  brought  to  order,  and 
two  of  the  ringleaders  were  shot  by  Washington's  command 


168  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1780   AND   1781.  [§  223 

Thus  came  to  a  close  the  most  discouraging  year  of  the  whole 
war. 

223.  Discouragements  at  the  Beginning  of  1  781.  —  The  disasters 
that  had  come  to  the  Americans  in  1780  gave  the  British  many 
reasons  to  hope  for  a  successful  end  of  the  contest  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1781.     After  the  defeat  of  Gates  at  Cam  den  there  was  a 
reasonable  prospect  that  Cornwallis,  having  completely  estab 
lished  British  authority  in  the  farther  South,  would  be  able  to 
overrun  Virginia  and  then  unite  with  Clinton  in  overwhelming 
Washington.    This  feeling  received  encouragement  from  the  dis 
contented  state  of  the  American  army,  but  in  their  predictions 
the  British  greatly  underrated  the  ingenuity  and  the  resources  of 
the  American  commander  in  chief.     Congress,  which  had  chosen 
to  disregard  Washington's  former  recommendation  by  sending 
Gates  to  the  South,  was  now,  late  in  1780,  when  there  was  only 
a  forlorn  hope  of  success,  quite  willing  that  the  commander 
should  designate  the  general  to  meet  Cornwallis.     Washington 
selected  Greene,  the  man  he  had  recommended  the  year  before. 
The  latter  did  not  reach  Charlotte  in  North  Carolina  until 
the  2d  of  December  ;  but  he  found  that  much  had  already  been 
done  by  Marion,  Sumter,  and  Morgan  to  counteract  the  effects 
of  disaster  and  to  keep  alive  the  patriotic  spirit. 

AMERICAN   SUCCESSES   IN  THE   SOUTH. 

224.  Victory  at  King's  Mountain.  —  Soon  after  the  defeat  of 
Gates  at  Camden,  in  the  summer  of  1780,  Cornwallis  had  begun 
a  northward  movement.     He  sent  on  in  advance  two  divisions  : 
one  tinder  Ferguson,  with  about  fourteen  hundred  men,  and 
one  under  Tarleton,1  with  about  the  same  number.     Ferguson 


1754;  died,  1833.  Came  to  America,  1776;  in  1779,  as  lieutenant 
colonel,  organized  in  South  Carolina  a  troop  known  as  the  "British"  or 
"  Tarleton's  Legion  "  ;  waged  with  it  very  effective  partisan  warfare  ;  served 
with  great  success  at  Camden;  defeated  by  Morgan  at  the  Cowpens,  1781; 
made  a  raid  in  Virginia,  1781  ;  returned  to  England  and  served  many  years  in 
Parliament;  knighted  (Sir  Bauastre  Tarleton),  1818. 


§225] 


AMERICAN  SUCCESSES  IN  THE   SOUTH. 


169 


soon  found  that  patriots  had  arisen  on  every  side.  Enterpris 
ing  hunters  and  backwoodsmen  had  come  from  all  parts  of 
the  North  and  West, 
as  well  as  from  the 
neighboring  regions, 
until  nearly  three 
thousand  were  in  the 
path  of  his  progress. 
Thwarted  at  every 
step,  he  was  finally 
obliged  to  look  for  a 
way  of  retreat.  His 
messengers  to  Corn- 
wallis  and  his  scouts 
were  everywhere  shot 
down  as  fast  as  they 
were  sent  out.  His 
force  was  finally 
brought  to  bay  on  the 
top  of  King's  Moun 
tain,  where  after  des 
perate  fighting  it  was 
compelled  to  surren 
der,  October  7.  As  a 
result  of  this  battle, 
in  which  Ferguson  was 
killed  and  nearly  four 
hundred  men  were  lost,  Cornwall^  was  obliged  to  fall  back 
to  Winnsborough. 

225.  Victory  at  Cowpens.  —  Against  the  force  of  Tarleton, 
Greene  sent  General  Daniel  Morgan,1  who  had  already  shown 

1  Born,  1736 ;  died,  1802.  Fought  in  the  French  and  Indian  Wars ;  led  a  com- 
pany  of  Virginia  riflemen  at  Boston;  after  release  from  imprisonment  in 
Arnold's  expedition  against  Quebec,  gained  great  distinction  at  Saratoga 
under  Gates ;  resigned  in  1779,  but  rejoined  the  army  in  1780  as  brigadier 
general ;  gained  victory  at  Cowpens ;  was  congressman  from  Virginia  in  1797. 


COLONEL 


170 


THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF   1780  AND   1781. 


[§225 


great  ability  at  Quebec,  at  Trenton,  and  at  Saratoga.  The 
forces  of  Tarleton  and  Morgan  were  about  equal.  The  Amer 
ican  commander  chose,  as  a  spot  for  the  battle,  an  open  plain 
where  cattle  had  been  herded,  called  the  "  Cowpens."  The 


MAP  or  OPERATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH,  1780-1781. 

British,  though  wearied  after  a  difficult  march  of  five  hours, 
decided  to  advance  at  once  to  a  front  attack.  The  first 
volleys  of  the  Americans  caused  the  enemy's  line  to  stagger 
and  fall  back.  As  the  British  came  on  a  second  time  ta  the 
charge,  Colonel  Washington,  a  relative  of  the  commander  in 
chief,  who  led  the  cavalry,  swept  around  the  American  left  and 
struck  the  British  in  the  flank.  At  this  moment  the  Continen- 


§227]  AMERICAN    SUCCESSES   IN  THE   SOUTH.  171 

tals  rushed  forward  in  a  bayonet  charge  with  irresistible  force. 
The  British  were  obliged  to  give  way  at  every  point,  losing  two 
hundred  and  thirty  killed  and  wounded  and  about  six  hundred 
prisoners.  Tarleton  escaped  with  difficulty.  The  Ameri 
cans  lost  only  twelve 
killed  and  sixty-one 
wounded.  The  bat 
tle  of  the  Cowpens, 
fought  January  17, 
1781,  was  the  most 
brilliant  American 
victory  of  the  war,  as 
Camden  had  been  the 
most  disastrous  de 
feat. 

226.  Morgan's  Race 
with       Cornwallis.  — 
Morgan,  having  now 
destroyed    Tarleton's 
force,  at  once  set  out 
to  rejoin  Greene,  but, 
in  order  to  do  so,  he 
had  to  run  a  race  with 

Cornwallis     for     the  GENEBAL  DAN.EL  MOKGA*. 

fords  of  the  Catawba 

River.  Though  the  British  commander  had  the  shorter  course, 
Morgan  pushed  on  with  so  much  greater  speed  that  he  was  the 
first  to  cross  and  thus  was  able  to  rejoin  the  main  army. 

227.  Battle  of  Guilford  Court  House.  —  Greene  now  determined, 
before  fighting  a  decisive  battle,  to  draw  his  enemies  as  far  as 
possible  away  from  their  supplies.     Sending  on  a  part  of  his 
force  in  advance  and  placing  himself  in  command  of  the  rear, 
he  kept  near  enough  to  Cornwallis  to  lure  him  on  without  giving 
him  an  opportunity  for  a  decisive  battle.     At  length,  on  Feb 
ruary  9,  the  American  forces  united  at  Guilford  Court  House, 


172  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF  1780  AND    1781.  [§  228 

only  about  thirty  miles  south  of  the  Virginia  border,  and  here 
Greene,  after  a  delay  of  about  one  month,  during  which  he  re 
ceived  reinforcements,  selected  ground  for  a  battle.  Though 
the  British  had  a  smaller  force,  they  were  veterans,  while 
the  larger  part  of  Greene's  army  was  composed  of  recent 
recruits.  In  the  battle  which  occurred  on  the  15th  of  March, 
the  British  had  the  advantage,  but'  'they  lost  so  heavily  that 
Cornwallis  did  not  dare  to  pursue  the  defeated  army.  In 
order  to  reestablish  his  communications  with  supplies,  he 
moved  southeast  for  the  port  at  Wilmington. 

228.  Greene's  Recovery  of  the  South.  —  Greene  followed  him 
rapidly  until  they  were  near  the  coast.     Then  Greene  struck 
into  the  South  for  the  purpose  of  reestablishing  his  authority 
throughout  the  Carolinas.     His  march  was  not  resisted  with 
any  success.     September  8,"  after  a  masterly  campaign  extend 
ing  over  six  months,  he  fought  and  won  the  last  battle  of  the 
series,  at  Eutaw  Springs,  about  fifty  miles  from  Charleston. 
Thus,  within  little  more  than  a  year  after  the  disastrous  defeat 
of  Gates  at  Camden,  the  brilliant  campaign  of  Greene  drove 
Cornwallis  into  Wilmington  and  the  remaining  British  forces 
in  the  South  into  Charleston,  and  had  practically  cleared  the 
intervening  country  of  the  enemy. 

THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   WAR. 

229.  Movement  of  Cornwallis  from  Wilmington.  —  Cornwallis, 
however,  did  not  long  remain  on  the  coast.     As  soon  as  he  had 
refreshed  his  army,  he  attempted,  with  the  help  of  Arnold,  to 
overrun  Virginia.     Reaching  Petersburg  on  the  20th  of  May, 
he  was  able,  within  a  short  time,  to  take  and  pillage  the  more 
important  towns  of  Virginia,  including  Petersburg,  Richmond, 
Charlottesville,  Portsmouth,  and  Williamsburg.     To  meet  these 
raiders,  Washington  sent  Lafayette  with  an  army  of  Ameri 
cans  and  French,  amounting  to  about  five  thousand  men.     The 
French  commander,  though  only  twenty-three  years  of  age,  had 
learned  from  Washington  the  art  of  harassing  the  enemy  with- 


231] 


THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   WAR. 


173 


out  bringing  on  a  general  engagement.  Cornwallis  now  had  a 
little  more  than  seven  thousand  men.  After  trying  in  vain  to 
bring  Lafayette  to  battle,  and  to  get  reinforcements  from  Clin 
ton,  he  followed  Clinton's  instructions  by  withdrawing  his 
force  to  Yorktown,  in  order  to  put  himself  in  communication 
with  the  British  fleet.  This  was  the  fatal  move  that  resulted 
in  the  loss  of  the  British  cause. 

230.  Plans  of  Washington  and  Rochambeau.  —  Two  days  after 
the  British  reached  Petersburg,  Washington  had  an  important 
conference  with  Rochambeau  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut. 
There,  it  was  decided  to  send  to  the  West  Indies  for  Commo 
dore  de  Grasse  and  such  ships  of  the  French  fleet  as  could  be 
spared  from  that  region.  The  purpose  was  to  combine  the 
French  and  Ameri 
cans,  either  to  make 
a  joint  attack  upon 
New  York,  or,  by  a 
sudden  movement 
toward  the  South, 
to  overwhelm  Corn 
wallis.  De  Grasse 
was  to  choose  and 
to  report  whether 
he  would  go  to  New 
York,  or  would  stop 
at  the  Chesapeake. 


Washington 
Headquart 


V*  '     S 
rl       ** 

'«  A.      Kochambeau-a 


Quarters 


231.  Plan  of  the 
Yorktown  Cam 
paign. —  In  due 

time,     Washington 

learned     that      J)e 

Grasse  had  chosen 

the  Southern  destination,  and  accordingly  he  began  at  once 

to  maneuver  his  force  so  as  to  lead  Clinton  to  suppose  that 

the  purpose  was  a  general  attack  on  New  York.     He  ordered 


MAP  OF  THE  OPERATIONS  AT  YORKTOWN. 


174  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  mo  AND  ITSI.  [§  232 

all  preparations  to  be  made  in  New  Jersey  as  though  he 
intended  a  siege,  even  sending  misleading  dispatches,  which 
he  planned  to  have  the  British  capture.  So  skillfully  was 
this  done,  that  even  when  the  army  began  to  move  from  the 
Hudson,  the  British  believed  it  was  for  the  purpose  of  a 
general  attack  upon  the  city  from  New  Jersey  and  Staten 
Island.  The  secret  of  the  movement  was  confined  to  the  French 
and  American  commanders.  Washington  evidently  believed 
with  Franklin,  that  three  persons  can  keep  a  secret  only  when  one 
of  them  is  dead.  On  the  19th  of  August,  leaving  a  strong  guard 
along  the  front  line,  the  French  and  American  armies  com 
menced  their  Southern  march.  So  skillfully  had  all  plans  been 
arranged,  that  Clinton  learned  of  the  movement  only  after  the 
Americans  had  reached  Philadelphia,  nearly  a  hundred  miles 
away.  He  attempted  a  diversion  by  an  attack  upon  Connecti 
cut,  but  it  was  impossible  to  retard  the  march,  or  distract 
the  attention  of  Washington.  The  British  could  not  follow 
without  abandoning  New  York  to  Heath,  who  had  been  left 
with  four  thousand  men  on  the  Hudson. 

232.  Movement  of  De  Grasse.  —  De  Grasse,  with  a  larger  fleet 
even  than  had  been  anticipated,  reached  the  Chesapeake  on 
the  day  when  Washington  reached  Philadelphia.     The  French 
admiral  at  once  landed  three  thousand  troops  and  turned  them 
over  to  Lafayette,  whose  army  was  thus  increased  to  about 
eight  thousand    men.      The    French    general,   knowing  that 
Washington  was  not  far  away,  threw  his  lines  boldly  across 
the  peninsula,  September  7,   thus   shutting   Cornwallis   com 
pletely  in.     The  British  now  saw  the  James  on  the  one  side, 
the  York  River  on  the  other,  with  De  Grasse  in  the  rear,  and 
Lafayette  in  front.     Their  condition  was  hopeless. 

233.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis.  —  Though  a  few  British  ships 
reached  the  scene  from  the  north,  they  were  too  weak  to  cope 
with   the   fleet   of   De  Grasse,   and   there  was,   therefore,  no 
possible   escape.     To  break  through  the  American  lines  was 
impossible,  as  Cornwallis  was   now  confronted   by  an    army 


§  235]  THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   WAR.  175 

more  than  twice  the  size  of  his  own.  The  siege  and  bombard 
ment  began  at  once.  The  cannonade  was  continued  for  some 
days  with  terrific  energy,  till  the  British  ammunition  began 
to  fail.  The  outworks  were  carried  by  an  assault  in  two 
divisions,  —  one  of  Americans  and  the  other  of  Frenchmen. 
The  Americans,  led  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  were  the  first  to 
cross  the  British  ramparts.  This  was  on  the  14th  of  October. 
On  the  17th,  just  four  years  after  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne, 
Cornwallis  hoisted  the  white  flag.  As  soon  as  the  prelimina 
ries  could  be  settled,  seven  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  soldiers  became  prisoners  of  war. 

234.  Influence  of  the  Surrender  on  the  British  Government.  — 

The  surrender  of  Cornwallis  was  virtually  the  end  of  this  long 
and  memorable  contest,  for  it  put  enthusiastic  life  into  the 
Americans,  while  it  overwhelmed  the  British  government  with 
confusion.  Those  English  statesmen  who  had  opposed  the  war 
from  the  first  so  strengthened  their  following  that  they  were 
able  to  sweep  the  king's  friends  out  of  power  and  bring  in  a 
government  that  sympathized  with  their  views.  The  king  him 
self,  though  driven  almost  to  despair  by  this  stupendous  event, 
was  the  last  to  recognize  its  real  significance;  but  at  length 
even  George  III.  saw  that  with  a  war  on  his  hands  against 
France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  his  American  project,  so  dear  to 
his  heart,  must  now  be  given  up.  A  new  ministry,  with  Lord 
Rockingham  at  its  head,  was  brought  in  to  negotiate  terms  of 
peace. 

235.  Difficulties  in  making  Peace.  —  There  were  long  delays 
and  many  difficulties  in  arranging  terms.     These  were  greatly 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  America  had  France  as  an  ally, 
and  France  had  to  be  consulted  in  regard  to  all  the  conditions. 
Congress  had  no  money  with  which  to  pay  off  the  soldiers, 
and  no  power  to  raise  money  in  the  individual  states.     Dis 
content   among  the   rank   and   file  threatened  to  end  in  the 
most  serious  revolts.     Nothing  but  the  infallible  tact  and  skill 
of  Washington  prevented  mutiny.     The  commander  in  chief. 


176  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1780    AND   1781.  [§  236 

however,  was  inflexible  in  his  determination  that  the  forces 
should  be  kept  up  until  the  treaty  was  finally  adopted.  That 
painful  period  of  distress  and  waiting  at  length  came  to  an 
end,  but  it  was  not  until  September  3,  1783,  nearly  two  years 
after  the  surrender  at  Yorktown,  that  the  treaty  was  signed 
at  Paris.  By  that  act  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  inde 
pendence  of  the  country  from  Canada  to  the  Floridas,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi.  The  conquest  of  the 
West  was  thus  admitted,  but  the  northern  boundary  was  left 
rather  vague,  owing  to  defective  knowledge  of  the  region. 

236.  Treatment  of  Tories.  —  The  Americans  made  the  mistake 
of  refusing  to  grant  amnesty  to  the  adherents  of  the  defeated 
party,  as  should  always  be  done  in  civil  war.     The  patriots,  or 
Whigs,  as  they  were  often  called,  continued  to  persecute  the 
Tories.     Many  were  put  to  death,  and  thousands  were  obliged 
to  flee  into  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia,  where  their  descendants 
still  remember  with  bitterness  the  treatment  of  their  ancestors. 

237.  Causes  of  Success.  —  The  success  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  was  mainly  due  to  five  causes  :  — 

l.l^The  unfailing  courage,  wisdom,  and  ability  of  Washington. 
Even  in  the  darkest  hours  his  confidence  in  the  final  issue 
never  faltered.  By  the  wisdom  and  persuasiveness  of  the 
letters  which  he  sent  to  governors,  members  of  Congress,  and 
prominent  men  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  he  inspired  others 
with  something  of  his  own  confidence  and  multiplied  the 
friends  of  independence.  His  extraordinary  military  skill  in 
knowing  when  to  fight  and  when  not  to  fight,  enabled  him  to 
take  advantage  of  the  mistakes  of  the  enemy  and  to  strike  a 
blow  whenever  he  could  hurt  the  cause  of  the  British  or  inspire 
his  own  army  with  new  courage. 

2.  The  alliance  and  support  of  the  French.  Until  the  York- 
town  campaign  the  active  assistance  of  the  French  in  the  field 
was  very  slight,  but  the  moral  support  was  most  important. 
While  it  inspired  the  Americans  with  new  courage,  it  had  a 
corresponding  effect  in  disheartening  the  British,  who  had 


§237]  THE   CLOSE   OF   THE   WAR.  177 

to  fight  the  French  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  But  for 
Be  Grasse,  the  Yorktown  campaign  would  probably  not  have 
been  attempted;  for,  if  attempted,  Cornwallis  could  easily 
have  been  supported  and  relieved  by  the  British  fleet. 

3.  The  weakness  of   the  British  commanders  in  the  field. 
Gage,   Howe,    Burgoyne,    Clinton,   and    Cornwallis   were    all 
greatly  inferior  to  Washington  and  Greene. 

4.  The   British,  toward  the   end  of  the  conflict,  ha:i  font- 
very  important  wars  on  their  hands,  so  that  they  found  it 
impossible   to  send  large  reinforcements  to  their  armies  in 
America. 

5.  The  persistent  spirit  of  the  American  patriots.     Though 
often  defeated,  and  sometimes  much  disheartened,  they  stub 
bornly  refused  to  give  up.     Even  in  the  dark  days  of  1780, 
when  the    South  was  overwhelmed  and  overrun,  they  never 
regarded  the  cause  as  lost.     It  was  this  spirit  which  made  it 
possible  for  Washington  to  keep  a  force  in   the  field   large 
enough  to  prevent  the  complete  success  of  the  British. 


REFERENCES.  — The  same  as  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VI. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  ARTICLES   OF   CONFEDERATION   AND   THE 
CONSTITUTION. 

DIFFICULTIES   OF   CONFEDERATION. 

238.  Chaotic  Condition  at  the  Outbreak  of  the  War.  —  As  soon 
as  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted,  the  mem 
bers  of  Congress  saw  that  some  form  of  general  government 
would  be  necessary  to  bind  the  different  parts  of  the  country 
into  common  methods.     Several  of  the   states  now  had  the 
advantage  of  regularly  constituted  governments ;  but  the  Con 
tinental  Congress  was  without  authority  from  any  source  what 
ever.     Its  members  had  been  sent  together  by  the  different 
states  without  any  mutual  understanding  or  instructions,  and 
consequently  it  had  no  power,  except  that  of  war,  to  enforce 
its  acts. 

239.  Committee  to  frame  Articles  of  Confederation.  —  On  the 

day  after  the  committee  was  appointed  to  frame  the  Decla 
ration,  a  still  larger  committee  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  preparing  some  plan  of  confederation.  The  difficulties  met 
by  this  committee  were  almost  insurmountable.  The  colonies 
were  at  that  moment  engaged  in  the  work  of  framing  perma 
nent  constitutions  for  themselves.  Nor  did  the  common  cause 
of  the  war  entirely  sweep  away  the  jealous  differences  between 
the  states.  The  colonies  had  been  settled  by  people  of  differing 
religious  and  political  beliefs,  and  they  had  preferences  for 
differing  methods.  The  smaller  colonies  feared  they  would  be 
absorbed,  and  the  larger  ones  feared  they  would  not  have 
proper  representation.  The  same  spirit  which  made  them 
desire  to  be.  free  from  the  rule  of  the  mother  country  made 

178 


§241]  DIFFICULTIES   OF -CONFEDERATION.  179 

each  state  unwilling  to  be  subject  to  the  rule  of  the  other 
states.  As  the  Declaration  of  Independence  had  been  aimed 
against  the  central  authority  of  Great  Britain,  it  was  natural 
that  they  should  distrust  a  strong  central  authority  in  the 
government  they  were  about  to  establish.  It  was  in  the  face 
of  all  these  difficulties  that  the  "  Articles  of  Confederation  ar  d 
Perpetual  Union  "  were  reported  by  the  committee,  only  eight 
days  after  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

240.  Difficulties    of    Agreement.  —  But    the    representatives 
found  so  many  reasons  for  desiring  changes  that  a  final  agree 
ment  was  not  reached  by  Congress  until  November  of  1777. 
Then  the  articles  had  to  go  to  the  several  states  for  ratifica 
tion.     The  difficulties  now  seemed  greater  than  ever  before. 
According  to  the   articles,  every  state  was  to  have  an  equal 
vote  with  every  other  state,  but  to  this  equality  of  representa 
tion  the  larger  states  very  strongly  objected,  while  the  smaller 
states  stubbornly   resisted   every  other  method.     There  were 
also  grave  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  executive  branch  of 
the  new  government. 

241.  Western  Lands.  —  The  ownership  of  the  Western  lands 
was  the  occasion  of  one  of  the  most  serious  difficulties.     The 
boundaries  of  some  of  the  states  were  defined  by  their  charters, 
while  those  of  others  were  not.     Six  of  the  states  claimed  to 
extend  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi  River,  while  Virginia  de 
fined  her  boundary  as  extending  to  the  northwest  so  far  as 
to  include  the  region  which  afterward  formed  Ohio,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin.     The  other  states  held  that  this  territory  had 
all  been  rescued  from  the  British  by  common  effort,  and  there 
fore  that  it  should  belong  to  the  nation  as    a   whole.     This 
opinion  finally  prevailed.     At  length,  after  long  and  hot  dis 
cussion,  New  York  agreed  to  cede  its  Western  lands  to  the  gen 
eral  government,  and  this  example  was  soon  imitated  by  the 
others,  although  several  states  still  reserved  certain  portions 
of  their  Western  territory.     After  this  concession,  New  Jersey 
was  the  first  state  to  ratify  the  articles.     Others  followed  so 


180  CONFEDERATION  AND   THE   CONSTITUTION.       [§  242 

slowly  that  the  ratification  was  not  complete  until  Maryland 
signed  on  March  1,  1781,  only  a  few  months  before  the  sur 
render  at  Yorktown.  The  delay  shows  the  difficulty  of  ob 
taining  even  so  little  central  authority  as  the  articles  provided 
for. 

242.  Weaknesses  of  the  Confederation.  —  It  immediately  be 
came  evident  that  the  confederation  had  very  serious  defects. 
Though  a  stronger  government  at  the  time  could  not  have 
been  adopted,  the  one  obtained  was  of   little  value,  except  to 
show  that  a  stronger  government  was  demanded.     By  its  pro 
visions  no  measure  could  be  taken  by  Congress  without  the 
vote  of  nine  of  the  thirteen  states,  and  even  after  the  adoption 
of  a  measure,  the  confederation  had  no  power  to  enforce  it. 
The  central  government  relied  upon  the  individual  states  to 
carry  out  its  laws,  and  the  states  had  the  option  of  enforcing 
obedience,  or  not,  as  they  chose.     Meantime  the  states  them 
selves  were  under  no  restrictions.     They  passed  revenue  laws 
according  to  their  own  interests,,  and  custom  houses  had  to  be 
multiplied  along  the  state   borders.     Whenever  any  tax  was 
called  for  by  Congress,  to  pay  off  the  Continental  troops  or  for 
any  other  purpose,  some  of  the  states  would  enforce  its  collec 
tion  and  others  would  not. 

243.  Dangers    shown   by    Shays'    Rebellion    and   Other   Dis 
turbances.  —  In  New  Hampshire  an  armed  force  assailed  the 
legislature  at  Exeter  and  demanded  an  issue  of  paper  money. 
In  Massachusetts,  the  collection  of  debts  and  taxes  was  forcibly 
resisted.     The  people  in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  led  by 
Daniel  Shays,  collected  into  a  motley  army,  and  not  only  at 
tacked  the  arsenal,  but  kept  the  state  in  a  turmoil  for  more 
than  six  months.      At  length  "Shays'  Rebellion,"  as  it  was 
called,  was  put    down  by  Governor  Bowditch  (1787),  but  with 
difficulty.      Not   one  of   the   insurgents  was   punished.     The 
states  seemed  to    be  growing   farther   and   farther  apart  and 
more  and  more  independent.     There  was  really  great  danger 
that  this  tendency  would  go  on  till  the  United  States,  like 


§246]  THE   CONSTITUTION.  181 

Europe,  would  be  made  up  of  many  independent  nationalities. 
As  if  to  make  improvement  impossible,  the  framers  of  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  had  provided  that  no  change  in 
them  should  be  adopted  unless  agreed  to  by  all  the  states. 
The  consequence  was  that  whenever  any  change  was  pro 
posed,  some  state  objected  and  the  proposal  was  lost.  It 
was  a  time  of  such  perplexity  and  danger  that  it  has  been 
aptly  called,  "  The  Critical  Period  in  American  History;'^ 

THE   CONSTITUTION. 

244.  First  Effort  for  a  Convention.  —  During   all   this   time 
Washington,  Hamilton,  and  Madison  had  been  writing  letters 
to  show  that  a  change  was  necessary  and  to  devise  a  means 
of  bringing  it  about.      At  length,  the  legislature  of  Virginia 
issued  a  call  in  1786  for  a  general  convention  to  meet  at  An 
napolis,  Maryland.      But  the  smaller  states  were  very  shy  of 
committing  themselves  to  any  scheme  proposed  by  any  of  the 
larger  states,  and  only  five  states  responded  to  the  call.     Of 
course  nothing  could  be  done.     The  very  absence  of  repre 
sentatives,   however,    revealed  some  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
situation. 

245.  Second   Effort  toward   a   Convention.  —  The  next  year 
another   course  was   adopted  and  with  greater  success.     The 
call  for  the  convention  was  issued  by  Congress.     The  pur 
pose  of  the  call  was  not  to  frame  a  new  constitution,  but  to 
modify  the  old  one.     Twelve  of  the  states  appointed  delegates, 
Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  of  the  commonwealths,  alone  stand 
ing  aloof.     The  convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787, 
and  unanimously  chose  Washington  as  its  president. 

246.  Ability  in  the  Convention.  —  This  convention  was  for 
tunate   in   having   prominent   representatives   of   all   classes. 
Every  state  sent  its  best.      Of  the  fifty-five  members,  twenty- 
nine  had  been  college  bred.     Jefferson  and  John  Adams  were 
in  Europe.      Samuel  Adams  and  Patrick  Henry  opposed  the 
convention  and  remained  at  home.     With  these  exceptions  the 


182          CONFEDERATION  AND  THE   CONSTITUTION.        [§246 

most  eminent  men  of  the  country  were  present.  Washing 
ton  and  Franklin,  by  their  general  wisdom  and  great  experi 
ence,  represented  the 
practical  judgment  of 
men  of  affairs.  There 
were  John  Dickinson, 
whose  Farmer's  Let 
ters  had  done  so  much 
to  bring  on  the  Revo 
lution  (§  131),  and 
James  Wilson,  a 
Scotchman,  one  of  the 
most  learned  jurists 
the  country  has  ever 
had.  Hamilton  and 
Madison,  by  their 
varied  and  profound 
knowledge  of  politi 
cal  history,  brought 
to  the  convention  the 

advantage  of  the  best 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 

types  of  general  schol 
arship.  Hamilton,1  though  only  thirty  years  of  age,  was  probably 
the  ablest  political  thinker  in  the  body.  But  his  power  was 
neutralized  by  the  fact  that  New  York,  the  state  which  he 

i  Born  at  Nevis,  in  West  Indies,  January  11,  1757 ;  died,  July  12, 1804.  De 
veloped  an  astonishing  precocity,  and  was  sent  to  New  York  City  in  1772 ; 
entered  Columbia  College,  and  in  1774  made  a  public  speech  that  was  con 
sidered  marvelous  for  a  boy  of  seventeen ;  published  numerous  pamphlets  of 
importance,  and  organized  a  cavalry  company  which  he  led  at  Long  Island 
and  White  Plains ;  was  member  of  Washington's  staff,  1776-1781 ;  ended  his 
military  career  by  leading  the  final  charge  at  Yorktown ;  member  of  Con 
gress,  1782-1783;  member  of  Annapolis  Convention  in  1786,  and  Federal 
Convention  in  1787 ;  was  the  chief  writer  of  The  Federalist ;  converted  a  two- 
thirds  majority  in  the  New  York  Convention  of  1788  into  a  minority  against 
the  Constitution  ;  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  Washington  founded  the 
national  financial  system ;  resigned  in  1795 ;  was  a  constant  power  as  a  writer, 
until  killed  in  a  duel  by  Burr  in  1804. 


§247] 


THE   CONSTITUTION. 


183 


represented,  had  opposed  the  convention,  and  had  sent  two 
delegates  to  do  what  they  could  to  prevent  success.  Hamilton 
was  further  handi 
capped  by  the  ex 
treme  nature  of  his 
views,  for  he  be 
lieved  in  a  much 
stronger  central  gov 
ernment  than  could 
at  that  time  be 
adopted. 

247.  James  Madi 
son.  —  For  these 
reasons,  the  main 
guidance  of  the  con 
vention  fortunately 
fell  upon  James 
Madison,1  a  young 
man  less  brilliant 
than  Hamilton,  but 
superior  to  him  in 
the  art  of  estimat 
ing  what  is  possi 
ble.  A  graduate  of 
Princeton  College,  he  had  been  from  his  youth  a  devoted 
student  of  history,  had  made  himself  thoroughly  acquainted 

1  Born,  1751 ;  died,  1836.  Graduated  at  Princeton,  1772 ;  member  of  Com 
mittee  of  Public  Safety  in  1774 ;  member  of  the  Virginia  Convention  in  1776  • 
member  of  Continental  Congress,  1780-1784,  in  which  he  was  noted  for  the 
wisdom  of  his  judgment  and  the  aptness  of  his  methods;  did  great  service 
in  securing  religious  liberty  in  Virginia  in  1784-1787 ;  member  of  the  Annapo 
lis  Convention  in  1786 ;  most  influential  member  of  the  Constitutional  Con 
vention  of  1787 ;  a  leading  member  of  Congress  from  1789  to  1797 ;  wrote 
the  "  Virginia  Resolutions  "  in  1798;  Secretary  of  State  under  Jefferson  from 
1801  to  1809 ;  President  from  1809  to  1817,  during  which  time  the  war  against 
Great  Britain  was  forced  upon  him ;  lived  in  retirement  at  Montpelier,  Vir 
ginia,  from  1817  till  his  death. 


JAMES  MADISON. 


184  CONFEDERATION  AND   THE   CONSTITUTION.       [§  248 

with  all  the  best  books  on  political  science,  and  had  paid 
particular  attention  to  the  republican  organizations  of  Greece, 
Rome,  Switzerland,  and  Holland.  From  the  time  he  was 
twenty-five  he  had  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  Virginia  leg 
islature  and  in  Congress,  and  he  thoroughly  understood  the 
weaknesses  and  difficulties  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
His  knowledge  and  experience,  though  united  with  a  remark 
able  firmness  of  purpose,  were  presented  with  a  kindness  and 
sweetness  of  manner  that  commended  his  views  to  all  his  fel 
low-members.  Madison,  therefore,  was  the  most  influential 
of  the  members  in  giving  the  Constitution  the  form  in  which  it 
was  adopted. 

248.  General  Spirit  of  the  Convention.  —  The  delegates  brought 
together  the  wisdom  and  experience   gained   in  framing  the 
state  constitutions  and  from  observing  the  prevailing  difficul 
ties.      The  efforts  of  the  convention  to  amend  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  were  doomed  to  early  failure.      It  was  soon  de 
cided  to  abandon  them  altogether  and  to  frame  an  entirely  new 
constitution.     Here  the  smaller  states  caused  the  greatest  diffi 
culty,  for  they  were  determined  to  give  as  little  power  as  pos- 

'  sible  to  the  general  government,  in  order  that  they  might  not 
be  overwhelmed  or  absorbed.  In  this  determination  were 
enlisted  not  only  New  York,  which  was  then  one  of  the  less 
important  states,  but  also  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Dela 
ware,  and  Maryland. 

249.  Representation  of  Slaves.  —  Another  very  serious  obstacle 
was   presented   by  the   slave  trade  and  the  question  of  the 
representation  of  slaves  in  Congress.     In  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  there  were  about  twelve  thousand  slaves 
north    of    Mason    and    Dixon's   line,    and    about    forty-eight 
thousand  south  of  it.     But  at  the  time  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  there  were   about   fifty  thousand   in  the  North, 
and   not   far   from    seven   hundred    thousand   in   the    South. 
There   had  been   little   or  no   importation   of   slaves   during 
the  war,  and  the  slave   system  was  generally  condemned  by 


§  252]  THE   CONSTITUTION.  185 

the  best  men  of  the  South  as  well  as  by  those  of  the  North. 
In  their  opinion,  it  was  only  a  question  of  time  .  when  it 
would  cease  altogether.  But  the  greater  number  of  slaves  in 
the  South  made  the  Southern  delegates  determined  to  have 
them  represented,  while  the  North  generally  opposed  such 
representation. 

250.  Strength  of  Central  Government.  —  Another  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  agreement  was  found  in  the  radical  differences  of 
opinion  between  the  members  as  to  whether  the  new  government 
was  to  be  very  weak  or  very  strong.     This  was  by  far  the  most 
important  question  of   all.     One   party  held  that  the   states 
should  still  be  left  with  great  powers,  and  should  be  practi 
cally   independent;  while  the   opposite  party  thought  that  a 
general  government  with  the  essential  attributes  of  an  elec 
tive  monarchy  was  most  needed.     There  was,  however,  a  very 
general  and  a  very  natural  remembrance  of  the  fact  that  it 
was  the  predominating  strength  of  the  executive  part  of  the 
British  government  thai  had  caused  separation,  and  there  was 
a  general  disposition  to  avoid  any  similar  defect. 

251.  Discussion  of  the  Difficulties.  —  These  various  difficulties 
taxed  all  the  faculties  of  the  members.     It  sometimes  seemed 
that  not  another  step  of  progress  could  be  made,  and  that  the 
delegates  would  be  obliged  to  abandon  the  task  and  go  home. 
As  discussion  advanced,  it  became  evident  that  no  agreement 
could  be  made  except  through  a  general  spirit  of  conciliation 
and  compromise.     The  convention  sat  with  closed  doors,  and 
for  four  months   considered  the   stupendous   difficulties   that 
confronted  them.     At  length,  on  the  17th  day  of  September, 
1787,  they  agreed   upon   a   constitution   and   adjourned.      It 
was  to  go  into  effect  when  ratified  by  the  conventions  of  nine 
states. 

252.  Four  Great  Lines  of  Compromise.  —  The  Constitution  was 
built  upon  a  basis  of  four  great  lines  of  mutual  concession. 

First,   the   smaller   states   were  brought   to   agreement   by 
being  allowed  the  same  representation  in  the  Senate   as  the 


186  CONFEDERATION   AND  THE   CONSTITUTION.       [§  253 

larger  states ;  while  the  larger  states  were  satisfied  by  being 
allowed  to  send  to  the  House  of  Representatives  a  number 
of  delegates  to  be  determined  by  the  number  of  inhabitants. 

Second,  the  question  of  the  representation  of  slavery  in 
Congress  was  finally  adjusted  by  providing  that  for  determin 
ing  the  number  of  representatives  of  each  state,  Congress 
should  add  to  the  number  of  freemen  three  fifths  of  all 
persons  held  to  service.  Congress  was  also  prohibited  from 
abolishing  the  foreign  slave  trade  before  1808. 

Third,  the  advocates  of  a  strong  central  government  came 
to  an  agreement  with  the  advocates  of  a  weak  one  by  allowing 
the  dividing  line  between  the  authority  of  the  central  govern 
ment  and  of  the  several  states  to  be  somewhat  vaguely  defined, 
and  by  leaving  such  definition  to  the  course  of  future  events. 
It  is  probable  that  if  either  side  had  insisted  on  putting 
into  words  a  statement  authorizing  its-  interpretation,  no 
agreement  could  have  been  reached.  This  uncertainty  of 
interpretation,  though  apparently  necessary  to  an  agreement 
on  the  Constitution,  might  be  called  the  fundamental  cause  of 
the  Civil  War  in  1861. 

Fourth,  while  the  President,  by  being  made  commander  in 
chief  of  the  army  and  being  intrusted  with  the  enforcement 
of  all  laws,  was  given  great  authority,  he  was  put  under 
rigid  constitutional  checks  in  numerous  ways. "  In  case  he 
should  exceed  his  authority,  he  could  be  impeached  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  tried  by  the  Senate ;  and  in 
case  of  conviction,  removed  from  office.  It  was  further  pro 
vided  that  in  all  cases  whatsoever  involving  differences  of 
opinion  regarding  the  Constitution,  the  Supreme  Court  should 
render  authoritative  decision.  This  authority  of  the  Supreme 
Court  was  the  most  marked  peculiarity  of  the  Constitution. 

253.  Characteristics  of  the  Constitution. — On  the  basis  of 
these  mutual  concessions,  the  Constitution  was  finally  adopted. 
It  provided  for  three  departments  of  government :  the  Legisla 
tive,  to  make  the  laws ;  the  Executive,  to  execute  the  laws ; 


§  254]  THE   CONSTITUTION.  187 

and  the  Judicial,  to  define  the  laws  in  case  of  dispute.  The 
legislature  consisted  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  the 
members  of  which  were  to  be  chosen  for  two  years  by 
the  people  of  the  several  states  ;  and  the  Senate,  consisting  of 
two  members  from  each  state,  who  were  to  be  chosen  for  a  term 
of  six  years.  The  executive  officer  was  to  be  a  President, 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  by  electors  chosen  by  the 
people  of  the  several  states,  each  state  to  have  as  many 
electors  as  it  had  members  in  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives  together.  To  the  President  was  also  given 
legislative  influence  through  the  right  of  veto.  The  judiciary 
was  to  consist  of  a  Supreme  Court,  and  such  other  courts  as 
Congress  might  provide  for.  The  judges  were  to  be  appointed 
by  the  President,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  were 
to  hold  office  during  good  behavior.  In  case  of  misdemeanor 
they  could  be  removed  by  impeachment.  The  authority 
acquired  by  the  Supreme  Court,  in  concrete  cases  of  liti 
gation,  to  pass  on  the  validity  or  invalidity  of  acts  of  Con 
gress,  or  of  state  legislatures,  gave  a  great  and  novel  power 
to  that  tribunal.  Jefferson  returned  from  Europe  just  after 
the  completion  of  the  work  of  the  convention,  and  was 
almost  panic  stricken  by  fear  that  the  plan  of  government,  if 
adopted  by  the  states,  would  allow,  if  not  even  encourage, 
the  establishment  of  monarchy.  It  was  many  years  be 
fore  Jefferson's  fears  were  allayed.  The  general  wisdom  of 
these  provisions,  however,  has  been  acknowledged  by  the 
whole  world. 

254.  Attitude  of  the  States.  —  After  the  adoption  of  the  Con 
stitution  by  the  convention,  it  went  to  the  several  states  for 
ratification,  and  during  the  winter  of  1787-1788  conventions  in 
the  respective  commonwealths  had  the  question  of  adoption 
under  consideration.  Its  ratification  was  most  strenuously 
opposed  in  Virginia,  in  New  York,  and  in  Rhode  Island. 
Patrick  Henry  was  the  most  eloquent  of  these  opponents,  his 
opposition  being  founded  on  the  belief  that  the  general  govern* 


188  CONFEDERATION  AND  THE   CONSTITUTION.        [§  255 


ment  would  gradually  grow  so  strong  as  to  interfere  with  the 
governments  of  the  individual  states.  Of  the  states  unfavor 
able  to  the  Constitution,  New  Hampshire  was  the  first  to  yield, 
in  June,  1788.  New  York  and  Virginia  soon  followed.  Khode 
Island  and  North  Carolina  held  out,  and  the  Constitution  went 
into  effect  without  their  consent.  In  order  to  satisfy  those 
who  thought  the  Federal  government  had  too  much  power,  ten 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  embodying  a  Bill  of  Eights 
designed  to  restrict  those  powers,  were  adopted  in  1791.  The 
final  adoption  of  the  Constitution  was  brought  about  very 
largely  through  the  influence  of  a  remarkable  series  of  letters 
written  by  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay,  and  afterward  col 
lected  into  the  volume 
known  as  The  Federalist. 

255.  Washington,  the 
First  President. — When, 
soon  after  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution,  the  first 
general  election  was  held, 
it  was  found  that  every 
elector  voted  for  Wash 
ington,  who  was  therefore 
unanimously  elected  as 
the  first  President.  John 
Adams,  having  the  next 
number  of  votes,  was  elected  Vice  President.  On  April  30, 
1789,  they  were  inaugurated  on  the  balcony  of  the  Federal 
Building,  on  Wall  Street,  New  York  City,  which  was  then  the 
seat  of  government. 

256.  Ordinance  for  governing  the  Northwest.  —  While  the 
Constitutional  Convention  was  in  session  at  Philadelphia,  the 
Congress  of  the  Confederation  was  in  session  in  New  York  City. 
On  the  30th  of  July,  1787,  Congress  passed  the  memorable 
"  Ordinance  for  the  Organization  of  Government  in  the  North 
west,"  that  vast  and  important  territory  which  now  comprises 


FEDERAL  HALL,  NKW  YORK  CITY. 


§256] 


THE   CONSTITUTION. 


189 


the  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
a  part  of  Minnesota.  This  ordinance  established  among  others 
four  provisions  of  fundamental  importance,  which  have  con 
tributed  immensely  to  the  development  of  the  North  Central 


J 


THE  NORTHWEST 

TERRITORY 

In  1787 


states.     These  four  fundamental  provisions  were  the  follow 
ing  :  - 

1.  "  Slavery   and   involuntary    servitude    shall    forever    be 
excluded."     This  provision   exempted  the   region  from  those 
perplexing   discussions    which   afterward    troubled    Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Nebraska. 

2.  "Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  necessary  for 
the  welfare  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education 
shall   forever    be    encouraged."      In    this    provision,  common 
schools,  high  schools,  normal  schools,  and  universities  found 
their  constitutional  justification,  and  accordingly,  in  all  the 


190  CONFEDERATION   AND  THE   CONSTITUTION.        [§  256 

states  formed  from  the  Northwest  Territory,  schools  of  all 
grades  have  been  supported  by  taxation.  The  example  thus 
set  has  been  followed  by  all  the  states  since  admitted  to  the 
Union. 

3.  "The  navigable  rivers  leading  into  the  Mississippi  and 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  carrying  places  between  them,  shall 
be  common  highways  and  forever  free."     This  provision  secured 
that  freedom  of  communication  between  the  states  which  has 
encouraged  very  rapid  material  growth. 

4.  "The  inhabitants  shall  forever  enjoy  religious  freedom, 
the  habeas  corpus,  trial  by  jury,  and  equal  civil  and  political 
privileges."     This  provision  not  only  secured  perfect  independ 
ence  of  religious  thought,  but  protected  all  the  people,  immi 
grants  as  well  as  others,  in  the  enjoyment  of  political  freedom. 

Though  the  binding  authority  of  this  ordinance  was 
subsequently  declared  by  the  Supreme  Court  to  have  been 
superseded  by  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  its  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  Northwest  was  unquestionably  very 
great. 


REFERENCES.  —  A.  Johnston,  American  Politics,  3-18 ;  R.  Frothingham, 
Rise  of  the  Republic,  569-610  (of  great  importance)  ;  J.  Fiske,  Civil  Govern 
ment,  180-260  ;  F.  A.  Walker,  Making  of  the  Nation,  1-75  ;  A.  B.  Hart, 
Formation  of  the  Union,  93-140  ;  J.  Fiske,  Critical  Period  of  American 
History,  90-101  and  177-186  ;  J.  Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History 
of  America,  Vol.  VI.,  716,  Vol.  VII.  ;  H.  Von  Hoist,  Constitutional  His 
tory,  Vol.  I. ;  J.  Schouler,  United  States,  Vol.  I.  ;  H.  C.  Lodge,  Wash 
ington,  Vol.  II.  Fiske,  Schouler,  and  Winsor  are  the  most  important  of 
the  general  authorities  on  almost  every  point.  J.  Bryce,  The  American 
Commonwealth  (abridged  edition),  chaps,  iii.,  xxv.,  xxix.,  important  on 
the  various  functions  of  different  parts  of  the  government ;  Elliot,  De 
bates  on  the  Constitution  ;  Hamilton,  The  Federalist ;  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  The 
Old  Northwest;  W.  G.  Sumner,  The  Financier  and  the  Finances  of  the 
American  Revolution  (2  vols.)  ;  W.  P.  Cutler,  Ordinance  of  1787; 
American  History  Leaflets,  Nos.  7,  8,  14,  20  ;  Old  South  Leaflets,  XL,  5  • 
T.  Roosevelt,  The  Winning  of  the  West,  Vol.  II.,  chaps,  i.-iii. 


A.  Connecticut's  Western  lieserve 

B.  Virginia's  Military  Reserve 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1783  —  STATE  CLAIMS  AND  CESSIONS 
To  face  p.  191 


PART   III. 

THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   POLITICAL 
PARTIES,  1789-1825. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  COUNTRY  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

GENERAL   CONDITIONS. 

257.  Population  and  Area.  —  The  country  over  which  Wash 
ington  began  to  preside  in  1789  was  very  different  from  the  great 
nation  it  has  grown  to  be.     Counting  about  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  slaves,  the  population  did  not  quite  reach  four 
millions.     Eleven  years  later,  by  the  second  census,  that  of  1800, 
this  population  had  increased  to  5,308,480 ;    but  the  area   of 
827,844  square  miles  was  not  yet  settled  at  the  ratio  of  six  and  a 
half  persons  to  a  square  mile.     It  was  only  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Virginia  to  Massachusetts  that  the  original  wilder 
ness  had  been  fairly  conquered  by  settlements  that  furnished  a 
population  of  from   twenty-five  to  ninety  inhabitants   to   the 
square  mile. 

258.  Boundary  Disputes. — The  boundaries  of  this  immense 
and  practically  unoccupied  area  were  in  dispute  to  the  north, 
northwest,    and   south.      The  British  still  kept  garrisons   at 
Detroit,  Niagara,  and  other  forts.     In  the  region  bordering  on 

191 


192        THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.      [§259 

the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Spanish  claims  conflicted  with  those  of  the 
Americans,  and  Spain  denied  the  inhabitants  of  the  new  settle 
ments  beyond  the  Alleghanies  any  practical  use  of  the  lower 
Mississippi.  A  treaty  with  Spain  in  1795  helped  to  mend 
these  matters. 

259.  The  West.  — The  Westerners,  who  were  thus  deprived 
of  the   full   use  of  their  great  waterway  and  whom  Spanish 
agents   endeavored  to  detach   from  the  Union,  were  few  in 
numbers.     Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were  practically  the  only 
organized  settlements;  but  a  popular  movement  toward  Ohio 
and  the  Northwest  was  beginning,  and  by  the  end  of  the  cen 
tury  the  Mississippi  Territory  had 
been  formed  in  the   region  which 
Georgia  claimed  north  of  the  Gulf. 
Most  of  the  settlers  in  these  outly 
ing  communities  had  moved  west 
ward  from  the  frontier  portions  of 
the   adjoining  older  states.      Thus 
many  of  the  immigrants  to  Tennes 
see    came     from    North    Carolina. 

Often    they    were    of    Scotch-Irish 
BLOCKHOUSE    AT    MACKINAW.  ,       ,        ,  ,.    .  ,       , 

1780  stock,  deeply  religious,  hardy  and 

frugal.    They  drove  out  the  Indians, 

killed  the  wild  beasts,  cleared  lands  for  their  farms,  and  raised 
their  large  families  in  a  rude  independence.  On  the  foundations 
they  laid,  great  commonwealths  have  been  erected  which  should 
not  in  their  present  wealth  and  power  forget  the  bold  adven 
turers  who  crossed  the  mountains  in  wagon  trains  or  floated 
down  the  Ohio  in  large  flat-bottomed  boats.1 

260.  The  Older  Commonwealths.  —  Within  the  original  colo 
nies  state  lines  were  much  confused.    Vermont  did  not  formally 
succeed  in  throwing  off  New  York's  claim  and  becoming  a 
state  until  1791.     Connecticut  still   claimed   a   strip  of  land 
along  the  northern  border  of  the  Northwest  Territory.     Maine 

i  Kentucky  was  made  a  state  in  1792 ;  Tennessee,  in  1796;  Ohio,  in  1803. 


§262]  GENERAL   CONDITIONS.  193 

continued  to  constitute  a  district  of  Massachusetts.  The 
population  of  all  the  states  was  chiefly  of  English  descent  and 
was,  on  the  whole,  homogeneous,  although  the  amount  of  inter 
course  between  state  and  state  was  still  small.  Virginia  was 
the  most  populous  of  the  states,  Massachusetts  ranking  next. 
Each  was  typical  of  the  region  to  which  it  belonged,  the  pres 
ence  of  slavery  more  or  less  retarding  the  South,  and  the  com 
parative  absence  of  it  favoring  New  England. 

261.  Occupations.  — Although  the  country  had  grown  consid 
erably  in  population  and  wealth  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  people  had  not  greatly  changed   in  character  or  in  their 
pursuits.     The  confusion  engendered  by  the  Revolution  was 
slowly  passing  away,  but  the  revived   industries  ran  along 
much   the   same   narrow   lines    as    of   old.     At  Washington's 
accession  to  the  Presidency  public  and  private  finances  were  in 
a  bad  shape,  but  speedy  improvement  followed  the  reforms 
of  Hamilton,  shortly  to   be   described   (§  266).      Agriculture 
was  still  the  main  calling  —  the  nation  being,  on  the  whole, 
one  of  farmers.     Commerce,  however,  was  a  surer  source  of 
wealth,  especially  in  the  East,  where  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
shipping.     But   manufacturing  was  in  its  infancy,  as  we  at 
once  perceive  when  we  learn  that  even  in  1800  not  quite  four 
per  cent  of  the  people  lived  in  towns. 

262.  The  Towns.  —  The  country  people  had  no  such  incen 
tives  to  flock  to  cities  as  they  have  to-day.     There  were  no 
railroads  or  steamboats  to  make  the  journey   easy.     On   the 
contrary,  roads  were  bad  and  travel  by  water  was  both  uncom 
fortable  and  dangerous.     Nor  were  the  towns,  of  which  Phila 
delphia  with  seventy  thousand  inhabitants,  New  York  with 
sixty  thousand,  Baltimore  with  twenty-six  thousand,  Boston 
with  twenty-four  thousand,  and  Charleston  with  twenty  thou 
sand,   were  the  chief,  especially  attractive.      Sanitation  was 
little  attended  to,  save  in  Philadelphia  after  the  terrible  yellow 
fever  epidemics  of  1793  and  1797.     There  were  few  theaters. 
The  newspapers  were  small  and  uninfluential  sheets.     Good 


194        THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY.     [§263 

colleges  and  schools  and  libraries  were  scarcely  to  be  found. 
Life  was  comparatively   simple    and    lacking  in  interest  and 


STAGECOACH  OF  THE  TIME  OF  WASHINGTON. 

brilliancy.  Indeed  the  country  gentleman,  especially  in  the 
South,  found  his  rural  sports  and  his  rounds  of  social  visiting 
more  enlivening  than  the  life  led  by  his  town  friends. 

SPIRIT   OF   THE   PEOPLE. 

263.  Dominance  of  the  Colonial  Spirit.  —  In  their  mental  atti 
tude  toward  life  the  American  people  had  changed  about  as 
little  as  in  their  occupations  and  customs.  Although  in 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  Benjamin  Franklin  they  had  pro 
duced  two  great  writers,  in  Franklin  and  Benjamin  Thompson 
(Count  Rumford,  1733-1814)  eminent  scientists,  and  in  Ben 
jamin  West  (1738-1820)  and  J.  S.  Copley  (1737-1815)  distin 
guished  painters ;  although  they  had  developed  as  great 
statesmen  and  political  writers  as  any  country  could  name, 
they  still  had  no  literature,  or  art,  or  science  worthy  of  being 
called  national.  In  other  words,  though  the  people  of  the 
United  States  had  won  their  political  independence,  they  were 
still,  in  their  modes  of  thought  and  action,  dominated  by  the 
spirit  of  colonial  dependence.  There  were  many  persons 
who  not  merely  imitated  English  manners  and  dress,  read 
English  books,  and  wrote  in  the  current  English  style,  but 
who  even  shared,  in  the  main,  English  political  ideas  and  preju 
dices.  There  were  others  who  were  fully  as  much  influenced 
by  French  modes  of  thought  and  life.  Here  and  there,  in 


§264]  SPIRIT   OF  THE   PEOPLE.  195 

great  men  like  Washington  or  Franklin,  we  find  a  sturdy 
originality  that  smacks  of  the  soil,  and  undoubtedly  the  plainer 
people  were  little  affected  by  foreign  ideas  and  customs.  But 
the  towns  still  preserved  their  colonial  attitude  of  dependence 
on  Europe,  and  this  was  in  the  main  true  of  the  prosperous 
country  families  as  well.  In  fact,  the  seaboard  colonies  were, 
in  a  way,  outskirts  of  Europe,  just  as  the  Western  communities 
were  outskirts  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  There  was  little  of 
the  enterprise  and  activity  which  throughout  America  to-day 
keep  small  communities  from  stagnating.  In  short,  our  fore 
fathers  of  three  generations  ago  were  in  many  ways  a  very 
different  race  of  beings  from  their  descendants  of  to-day. 

264.  Virtue  and  Happiness  of  the  People.  —  Yet  it  would  be 
a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  drawbacks  just  enumerated 
were  in  the  main  apparent  to  the  American  people  themselves, 
or  that  they  are  greatly  to  be  insisted  upon  in  a  sketch  of  the 
civilization  of  the  period.  American  life  might  at  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  seem  dull  and  narrow  to  travelers  from 
Europe,  but  we  know  that  a  happy,  brave,  free,  religious  people 
inhabited  a  land  that  yielded  abundant  returns  to  their  labors, 
and  we  may  readily  believe  that  their  lives  were  fully  as  useful 
as  ours  are  to-day.  Nor  should  it  ever  be  forgotten  that  amid 
these  provincial  surroundings  arose  the  greatest  figure  that 
modern  history  can  show,  and  that  the  American  people  were 
wise  enough  to  choose  electors  who  would  make  him  President. 


REFERENCES. — J.  Schouler,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I., 
chaps,  i.-iii. ;  J.  B.  McMaster,  History  of  the  American  People,  Vol.  I., 
chap.  i.  See  also  References  to  the  next  chapter.  The  novels  of  Charles 
Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810),  the  first  American  who  was  a  successful 
professional  man  of  letters,  may  be  profitably  consulted  in  connection  with 
this  chapter,  especially  his  Arthur  Mervyn,  and  Ormond,  which  describe 
life  in  Philadelphia  during  the  yellow  fever  epidemics. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   WASHINGTON,    1789-1797. 
EARLY  LEGISLATION   AND   PARTIES. 

265.  Washington  as  a  Statesman. — When  Washington  took 
the  oath  of  office  in  New  York  City l  on  April  30, 1789,  few  peo 
ple  could  have  foreseen  that  the  elderly,  dignified  man,  dressed 
in  the  picturesque  costume  of  the  period,  would  one  day  rank 
among  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the  world.  His  experience 
had  been  rather  with  military  than  with  civil  affairs.  He  was 
reserved  in  temper,  and  liked  forms  and  ceremonies  to  which 
the  masses  were  opposed.  He  had  few  of  the  arts  of  per 
suasion.  His  mind  was  not  trained  like  that  of  John  Adams, 
for  example,  nor  was  it  markedly  original.  But  he  had 
had  the  training  of  experience,  and  he  had  what  is  essen 
tial  to  statesmanship  of  the  first  order  —  a  great  character, 
sobriety,  dignity,  perfect  rectitude  of  purpose,  knowledge  of 
men,  and  willingness  to  trust  those  whom  he  regarded  as  com 
petent —  in  short,  wisdom  as  opposed  to  mere  knowledge 
made  Washington  the  great  statesman  we  now  know  him  to 
have  been.  He  held  the  reins  of  government  firmly  and  made 
few  or  no  mistakes.  He  saw  that  the  new  nation  should 
show  prudence  and  by  its  dignity  win  the  respect  of  other 
nations ;  and  in  spite  of  criticism,  and  often  of  frantic  opposi 
tion,  he  kept  his  administrations  well  in  line  with  his  ideals. 
He  avoided  foreign  complications  and  appeased  or  put  down 
domestic  discontent.  He  balanced  political  parties  and  made 

1  New  York  City  was  the  temporary  capital  until  1790,  when  Philadelphia 
took  its  place.  In  1800  the  government  was  moved  to  Washington,  which  at 
the  time  contained  few  houses. 

190 


93  89  95  81  77 


THE  AREAS  OF 

FREEDOM  AND  SLAVERY 
in  1790. 


To  face  p.  296. 


§  266]  EARLY   LEGISLATION   AND   PARTIES.  197 

their  leaders  serve  the  state.  When  he  laid  down  his  office 
he  explained  his  principles  in  his  "  Farewell  Address,"  which 
has  become  one  of  the  political  classics  of  the  world.  And 
now,  after  the  lapse  of  a  century,  the  perspective  of  time  en 
ables  us  to  comprehend,  in  part  at  least,  the  unique  grandeur 
of  his  position  among  men. 

266.  Early  Legislation.  —  The  first  Congress,  which  was  or 
ganized  shortly  before  Washington  was  inaugurated,  contained 
some  eminent  men,  chief  among  them  perhaps  being  James 
Madison  of  Virginia,  in  the  House  of  representatives,  and 
John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  who,  as  Vice  President,  presided 
over  the  Senate.  The  members  were  residents  of  the  districts 
they  represented,  and  their  salary  was  at  first  six  dollars  a  day. 
The  most  important  work  they  did,  after  determining  the  rules 
of  procedure  that  should  govern  them,  was  to  organize  those 
portions  of  the  administration  and  government  that  had  been 
left  vague  by  the  Constitution.  They  established  the  three  de 
partments  of  State,  Treasury,  and  Wrar,  whose  Secretaries,  along 
with  the  Attorney-General,  formed  the  President's  Cabinet.1 
The  Post-Office  Department  was  also  organized,  but  the  Post 
master-General  was  not  then  included  in  the  Cabinet.  Con 
gress  furthermore  organized  the  Federal  judiciary  along  the 
lines  of  circuit  and  district  courts  that  it  follows  at  present, 
the  Supreme  Court  having  been  authorized  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  but  the  number  of  its  justices  not  having  been  settled. 
They  also  passed  a  tariff  law  giving  mild  protection  to  manu- 

1  General  Henry  Knox  of  Massachusetts  was  the  first  Secretary  of  War  and 
was  also  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  naval  affairs.  The  Navy  Department 
was  not  established  until  1798.  Edmund  Randolph  of  Virginia  was  the  first 
Attorney-General.  The  two  most  important  secretaryships  were  those  of 
State  and  of  Treasury  respectively  (§§  267,  268) .  The  Cabinet  officers  did 
not  obtain  the  privilege  of  appearing  before  Congress  in  order  to  explain  and 
defend  the  measures  advocated  by  them.  Thus  an  important  variation  from 
British  parliamentary  government  was  introduced.  Another  variation  has 
come  about  through  the  fact  that  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  who  was  at  first 
an  impartial  moderator,  has  become  for  three  quarters  of  a  century  the  most 
influential  of  party  leaders  through  his  privilege  of  appointing  all  committees. 


198      ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   WASHINGTON,   1789-1797.     [§267 

facturers,  as  well  as  a  moderate  system  of  internal  duties  on 
distilled  spirits.  They  arranged  for  the  payment  of  the 
foreign  and  domestic  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  about 
fifty-four  million  dollars,  mainly  incurred  to  carry  on  the  Kevo- 
lution,  and  also,  after  much  discussion,  agreed  to  assume  a 
large  part,  i.e.  twenty-one  million  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  of  the  debts  of  the  individual  states  contracted  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  latter  measure  was  carried  only  by 
means  of  an  agreement  to  fix  the  Federal  capital  at  a  point 
on  the  Potomac  River  (afterward  Washington),  in  return  for 
which  concession  Southern  votes  were  secured.1  Finally, 
Congress  established  a  National  Bank  with  a  capital  of  ten 
million  dollars  and  a  charter  running  twenty  years,  and  also 
laid  before  the  states  twelve  amendments  to  the  Constitution 
which,  as  we  have  seen  (§  254),  had  been  suggested  during  the 
state  debates  on  the  adoption  of  that  instrument.2 

267.  Hamilton  and  the  Federalists.  —  The  financial  legislation 
mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph  had  been  outlined  in  the  main 
by  Alexander  Hamilton  of  New  York,  the  first  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury.  This  remarkable  man  had  distinguished  him 
self  as  a  soldier  and  as  a  contributor  to  The  Federalist  in 
defense  of  the  Constitution  (§  254),  before  Washington  chose 
him  as  his  chief  counselor.  As  a  financier  and  an  adminis 
trator  working  under  a  chief,  he  has  probably  had  no  equal  in 
America.  In  his  theories  of  government,  however,  he  favored 
a  strong  central  administration  more  than  a  simple  people  sus 
picious  of  tyranny  thought  proper.  Hence,  while  he  easily 

1  Jefferson  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  obtaining  this  compromise. 

2  Of  these  twelve  proposed  amendments,  ten  were  ratified  in  1791.    They 
form  a  Bill  of  Rights.     A  few  years  later  an  eleventh  was  added  in  order  to 
prevent  states  from  being  sued  by  citizens,  and  a  twelfth,  as  we  shall  soon  see, 
in  order  to  avoid  deadlocks  in  the  election  of  a  President.    At  this  point  the 
practice  of  amending  the  Constitution  stopped  until  after  the  Civil  War. 
Cumbrous  formalities  had  to  be  gone  through,  and  it  was  soon  found  that  the 
decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  constitutional  questions  were  the  best  means 
of  making  the  Constitution  a  flexible  instrument  capable  of  adapting  itself  to 
the  changing  needs  of  the  country. 


§268]  EARLY  LEGISLATION  AND  PARTIES.  199 

dominated  all  the  supporters  of  the  new  government,  he  failed 
to  secure  the  confidence  of  the  masses  and  probably  would  not 
have  been  given  the  Presidency,  even  if  he  had  not  fallen  in  a 
duel  with  Aaron  Burr  in  1804.  He  did,  however,  during  his 
life  direct  the  policy  of  the  Federalists,  as  the  party  supporting 
the  Union  under  the  Constitution  was  called.  Washington 
would  have  liked  to  govern  without  parties,  but  the  unsettled 
question  whether  the  new  central  government  should  be  strong 
or  weak  necessitated  a  twofold  division  of  voters.  And  in  the 
end  even  Washington  was  forced  more  or  less  to  take  sides 
with  Hamilton  and  the  Federalists. 

268.  Jefferson  and  the  Democratic-Republicans.  —  Hamilton's 
rival  in  the  Cabinet  was  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia,  who 
gave  up  his  post  as  minister  to  France  to  accept  the  Secretary 
ship  of  State.  Jefferson  had  already  acquired  great  fame  as  the 
writer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  other  state  pa 
pers.  He  had  been  governor  of  Virginia,  and  was  a  good  legis 
lator  and  administrative  officer,  although  plainly  Hamilton's 
inferior  in  the  latter  respect.  But  he  was  especially  strong  in 
his  thorough  comprehension  of  the  desires  of  the  people  and  in 
his  ability  to  criticise  political  institutions  and  measures.  He 
believed  in  democracy  and  wished  government  to  be  simple  in 
every  respect.  Being  suspicious  by  nature,  he  thought  that 
Hamilton  and  the  Federalists  were  aiming  to  establish  a  strong 
republic  that  might  develop  into  a  monarchy.  In  order  to 
oppose  them,  he  drew  together  all  the  dissatisfied  elements  in 
the  country,  as  well  as  all  the  advocates  of  a  simple,  popular 
government,  into  a  party  soon  known  as  the  Democratic-Repub 
licans.  Under  one  name  or  another,  the  two  parties  formed 
under  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  have  existed  to  our  own  day. 
The  two  Secretaries  naturally  opposed  each  other  in  the  Cab 
inet,1  and  Washington  had  a  hard  task  in  forcing  them  to  work 
together.  Finally  Jefferson,  who  had  indiscreetly  used  the 

1  Jefferson  wrote  that  they  were  pitted  against  each  other  like  cocks  in  a 
cockpit. 


200      ADMINISTRATIONS  0$  WASHINGTON,  1789-1797.     [§269 

newspapers  against  the  administration,  desired  to  resign  and 
return  to  his  home  at  Monticello,1  and  Washington  let  him  go. 
After  this,  as  we  have  jnst  seen,  the  President  allowed  Hamil 
ton  more  and  more  power,  and  the  administration  became  prac 
tically  a  Federalist  one,  although  its  head  was  still  superior  to 
mere  party  considerations. 

DIFFICULTIES   OF   ADMINISTRATION. 

269.  Washington's  First  Term.  —  At  the  appointed  time,  be 
fore  -the  expiration  of  his  first  term,  Washington  was  elected 
unanimously  for  a  second.      During  his  first  term,  in  which 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  were  reconciled  to  the  Union, 
and  Vermont  and  Kentucky  added  to  it,  only  two  events  of 
great  importance  took  place.      These  were  St.  Glair's  defeat 
and  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.     This  latter  event 
was  destined  to  complicate  domestic  politics  in  America  after 
Washington  had  begun  his  second  administration. 

270.  St.    Clair's   Defeat.  —  The   Northwestern   Indians  had 
been  giving  trouble  since  1786,  and  in    1791   had  destroyed 
the   settlement  of   Big  Bottom,  in  Ohio.     In  order  to  check 
them,  it  was   determined   to   construct  a  line  of   forts  from 
Cincinnati  to  Lake  Michigan.     General  Arthur  St.  Clair,  gov 
ernor  of  the  Northwest  4  Territory,  was   beginning  the  work 
when  he  was  entrapped  in.  ambush,  and  suffered  a  crushing 
defeat  (1791).     He  resigned,  and  Washington,  who  was  moved 
to  indignation  and  grief  by  the  catastrgphe,  appointed  "  Mad 
Anthony  "  Wayne,  another  Revolutionary  veteran,  as  his  suc 
cessor  (§  198).      Wayne,  a   thorough  soldier,  proceeded  cau 
tiously,  and  two  years  later  (1793)  broke  the  power  of  the 
tribes  in  a  battle  near  Vincennes.     The  treaty  of   Greenville 
(1795)  relieved  eastern  Ohio  from  Indian  menaces. 

271.  Genet*  s  Indiscretions.  — Early  in  1793  war  was  declared 
between  France  and  England,  and  the  Democratic-Republican 

1  Iii  Alberaarle  County,  Virginia. 


§272]  DIFFICULTIES   OF   ADMINISTRATION.  201 

party  wished  to  involve  America  in  the  struggle,  directly  or 
indirectly,  in  the  interests  of  her  former  ally.  We  had  a 
treaty  binding  us  to  defend  French  colonies,  like  those  in  the 
West  Indies,  but  this  treaty  had  been  concluded  with  the 
French  monarchy,  not  with  the  Republic  that  had  overthrown 
Louis  XVI.  After  some  discussion  in  the  Cabinet,  Washing 
ton  issued  a  proclamation  of  strict  neutrality,  which  naturally 
disappointed  the  French  revolutionists  greatly.  Their  min 
ister  to  America,  Edmond  Charles  Genet,  landed  in  Charleston 
and  began  to  fit  out  privateers  and  enlist  men  in  plain  defiance 
of  the  President's  proclamation.  He  counted  on  the  sympathy 
of  the  people  with  France,  and  was,  indeed,  received  with  en 
thusiasm  by  many  visionary  citizens.  But  Washington  stopped 
his  privateers,  and  treated  all  his  demands  with  such  firmness 
that  he  soon  lost  ground.  He  had  the  insolence  to  make  a 
public  appeal  against  the  administration.  This  foolhardy  act 
could  lead  to  but  one  result  —  his  recall,  at  the  request  of  the 
United  States.  Genet,  however,  though  recalled,  chose  not  to 
run  the  risk  of  returning  to  France,  where  the  guillotine  was  in 
full  operation. 

272.  Jay's  Treaty.  —  One  of  the  chief  events  of  Washing 
ton's  second  administration  was  the  ratification  of  the  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  which  bears  the  name  of  the  statesman 
who  negotiated  it  —  John  Jay,1  then  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  There  were  various  restrictions  placed  by 
England  upon  America's  trade,  and  the  ships  of  the  latter 
were  being  captured  during  the  war  then  in  progress  between 
Great  Britain  and  France.  Native-born  Americans  were  fre- 

1  Born,  1745 ;  died,  1829.  Graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia)  College,  1766 ; 
member  of  committee  of  correspondence  and  of  the  First  Continental  Con 
gress,  1774;  wrote  Address  to  the  People  of  Great  Britain  in  1774;  was  mem 
ber  of  the  Second  Congress,  and  was  chief  justice  of  New  York  in  1777 ;  was 
associated  with  Franklin  and  Adams  in  negotiating  treaty  with  France ;  sec 
retary  of  foreign  affairs,  1784-1789 ;  wrote  at  least  five  of  the  essays  in  The 
Federalist ;  member  of  the  New  York  Constitutional  Convention,  1788 ;  ap 
pointed  by  Washington  first  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
1789 ;  after  negotiating  "Jay's  Treaty,"  was  governor  of  New  York,  1795-1801. 


202      ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  WASHINGTON,  1789-1797.     [§273 


quently  taken  from  the  decks  of  their  country's  merchant 
vessels  and  pressed  into  the  British  naval  service,  on  the 
pretense  that  they  were  really  British  born.  As  the  two  nations 
spoke  the  same  language,  it  was  often  difficult  to  prove  that 
this  impressment  was  illegal.  There  were  other  troubles,  con 
nected  with  the  fail 
ure  of  the  British 
to  abandon  frontier 
posts,  with  boundary 
disputes,  and  with 
unpaid  claims ;  hence 
there  was  much  popu 
lar  feeling  against 
Great  Britain.  Jay, 
after  great  trouble, 
negotiated  in  the 
autumn  of  1794  a 
treaty  which  removed 
some  grievances,  such 
as  the  unlawful  occu 
pation  by  the  British 
of  military  posts  upon 
American  soil,  but  did 
not  much  improve  the 
condition  of  trade,  nor 
abate  the  impressment 

nuisance.  Washington,  although  he  was  disappointed,  thought 
that  even  such  a  treaty  for  twelve  years  would  be  better  than  a 
war  with  England.  He  called  an  extra  session  of  the  Senate  in 
June,  1795,  and  after  a  hot  debate,  the  treaty,  slightly  altered, 
was  confirmed.  There  was  great  popular  displeasure  about  the 
matter,  and  Jay  and  Washington  were  bitterly  reviled,  but  in 
the  end  it  was  seen  that  they  had  acted  wisely. 

273.    The  Whisky  Rebellion.  —  Another  event  of  importance 
was  an  insurrection  in  western  Pennsylvania  in  the  summer 


JOHN  JAY. 


§274] 


DIFFICULTIES   OF   ADMINISTRATION. 


and  autumn  of  1794,  commonly  known  as  "The  Whisky 
Rebellion."  The  moderate  excise  tax  on  whisky  had  outraged 
the  rough  frontiersmen  of  the  district,  since  they  made  the 
liquor  easily  and  could  purchase  goods  in  exchange  for  it.1 
They  threatened  the  tax  collectors  in  mobs,  and  finally  blood 
was  shed,  in  July,  1794.  Great  excitement  followed,  and  the 
government  mail  was  robbed.  Then  the  President  called  out 
the  militia  from  Pennsylvania  a.nd  neighboring  states,  and  fif 
teen  thousand  men  were  marched  over  the  region,  encountering 
no  opposition,  and  making  only  a  few  arrests.  Two  rough 
fellows  were  convicted  of  treason,  but  Washington  pardoned 
them,  and  the  insurrection  was  at  an  end. 


MOUNT  VERNON. 


274.   Washington  Refuses  a  Third  Term. —  In   1796,  in   his 

famous  "Farewell  Address,"  Washington  declined  reelection 
for  a  third  term,  thus  setting  a  precedent  which  has  been  fol 
lowed  ever  since.  He  served  his  country  from  the  spring  of 


1  The  internal  revenue  tax  on  spirits  still  produces  lawlessness  among  the 
mountaineers  of  the  Southern  states. 


204      ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  WASHINGTON,   1789-1797.     [§  274 

1789  to  that  of  1797.  During  his  second  term  his  political 
assailants  were  especially  venomous.1  As  criticism  hurt  him 
sorely,  he  was  glad  to  lay  down  his  office,  and  retire  to  Mount 
Vernon,  particularly  as  it  seemed  that  the  new  government 
was  now  stable  enough  to  be  able  to  exist  without  him. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  which  should  be  consulted  in  con 
nection  with  Chapters  XIII.-XVII. :  W.  Macdonald,  Select  Documents 
of  United  States  History,  1776-1861 ;  J.  Schouler,  History  of  the  United 
States  (6  vols.)  ;  J.  B.  McMaster,  A  History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States  (to  1830,  5  vols.)  ;  J.  Winsor,  The  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America  (8  vols.)  ;  H.  von  Hoist,  The  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 
States  (8  vols.)  ;  G.  Tucker,  The  History  of  the  United  States  (4  vols.)  ; 
Bryant  and  Gay,  A  Popular  History  of  the  United  States  (4  vols.)  ;  R. 
Ilildreth,  The  History  of  the  United  States  H492-1821,  6  vols.)  ;  A.  B. 
Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  chaps,  vii.-xi. ;  F.  A.  Walker,  Making 
of  the  Union  ("American  History  Series")  ;  J.  W.  Burgess,  The  Middle 
Period,  chap.  i.  ("American  History  Series"). 

SPECIAL  WORKS  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  CHAPTER  XII.  :  H.  C.  Lodge, 
George  Washington,  Vol.  II.,  Alexander  Hamilton;  J.  T.  Morse,  Thomas 
Jefferson  ;  S.  H.  Gay,  James  Madison  (these  are  in  the  "  American  States 
men"  series).  See  also  other  biographies  of  these  four  statesmen  and 
their  collected  writings,  as  well  as  the  Messages  of  the  Presidents. 

1  To  Governor  Trumbull  of  Connecticut,  who  had  urged  Washington  to  run 
for  a  third  term,  the  President  replied  that  if  the  Democrats  were  to  put  up  a 
broomstick  against  him  as  candidate  they  would  be  victorious.  See  Fisher's 
Life  of  Trumbull,  Appendix. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF   JOHN   ADAMS,    1797-1801 
A   PERIOD   OF   DISSENSIONS. 

275.  The  Election  of  John  Adams.  —  Washington's  refusal  of 
a  third  term  and  retirement  to  Mount  Vernon,  brought  John 
Adams1  to  the  front 
as  the  natural  choice 
of  the  Federalists  for 
President.  Hamilton, 
as  we  have  seen  (§  267), 
was  out  of  the  question, 
and  the  services  of 
Massachusetts'  great 
son  during  the  Revolu 
tion  ranked  next  to 
those  of  Washington 
now  that  Franklin  was 
dead.  The  Democratic- 
Republicans  naturally 
favored  Jefferson;  but 
there  was  no  such 
elaborate  campaign 
between  the  rivals  as 
there  is  in  our  day. 

As  the  electoral   sys- 

..  JOHN  ADAMS. 

tern    then    stood,  the 

person  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes  in  the  Electoral 
College  became  President,  the  person  receiving  the  next  highest 

1  Born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  October  31,  1735 ;  died  at  Quincy,  once 
part  of  Braintree,  July  4,  1826.    He  practiced  law  and  took  active  part  in  agita- 

205 


206      ADMINISTRATION   OF   JOHN  ADAMS,    1797-1801.      [§276 

number,  Vice  President.  Hamilton  tried  by  an  intrigue  to  get 
Thomas  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  who  was  the  Federalist 
candidate  for  Vice  President,  elected  President  over  Adams. 
His  scheme  failed,  however,  for  Pennsylvania  and  the  South 
voted  for  Jefferson,  who  thus  secured  69  votes  to  Adams's  71. 
Jefferson,  therefore,  became  Vice  President.  Congress  divided, 
the  Senate  continuing  Federalist,  but  both  parties  being  so 
nearly  even  in  the  House  that  a  few  moderate  Democratic- 
Kepublicans  held  the  balance  of  power. 

276.  The  X.  Y.  Z.  Affair.  —  Adams  took  over  Washington's 
Cabinet,  from  which  Hamilton  had  retired  in  1795.  In  so  doing 
he  made  a  mistake,  since  the  Secretaries  regarded  Hamilton  as 
the  leader  of  their  party,  and  indulged  in  intrigues  against 
their  lawful  chief.  The  new  President  also  tried  to  carry  out 
Washington's  general  policy,  and  found  himself  hampered, 
especially  with  regard  to  France.  The  French  had  not  liked 
the  treaty  the  United  States  had  concluded  with  their  enemies, 
the  British,  through  the  diplomacy  of  Jay,  and  they  had  been 
imprudently  dealt  with  by  the  American  minister,  James 
Monroe.  Monroe's  successor,  Charles  Cotes  worth  Pinckney1  of 
South  Carolina,  was  not  well  treated  in  France,  and  at  once  in 
formed  Adams  that  the  French  Directory  would  not  receive 
another  Minister  from  the  United  States  until  their  grievances 
were  redressed.  Adams  immediately  called  a  special  session  of 

tion  against  the  Stamp  Act ;  wrote  much  against  British  treatment  of  colonies ; 
served  prominently  in  First  and  Second  Continental  Congresses ;  did  much  to 
secure  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence ;  sent  as  Commissioner 
to  France,  1777;  negotiated  Dutch  loan,  1780;  Minister  to  Holland,  1781;  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1783;  Minister  to  Great  Britain, 
1785 ;  returned  to  America,  1788 ;  Vice  President,  1789-1797 ;  President,  1797- 
1801 ;  lived  in  retirement  at  Quincy  till  his  death. 

1  Born  in  South  Carolina,  1746 ;  died,  1825.  Attorney-general  in  South 
Carolina,  and  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress,  1775;  fought  as  major  at 
Brandywine,  German  town,  and  Charleston;  member  of  the  Federal  Conven 
tion  of  1787 ;  was  sent  on  mission  to  France  in  1796 ;  in  response  to  efforts  of 
the  French  to  bribe  the  envoys,  gave  utterance  to  the  phrase,  "millions  for 
defense,  but  not  a  cent  for  tribute  " ;  was  Federalist  candidate  for  Vice  Presi 
dent  in  1800,  and  for  President  in  1804  and  1808. 


§277J 


A  PERIOD   OF   DISSENSIONS. 


207 


Congress,  but  was  wise  enough,  to  send  over  John  Marshall  of 
Virginia  and  Elbridge  Gerry  of  Massachusetts  to  act  with  Pinck- 
ney  as  commissioners. 
Nearly  a  year  later 
news  was  received 
that  an  attempt  had 
been  made  to  make 
the  commissioners, 
who  had  not  been 
officially  received, 
offer  money  for  secur 
ing  a  settlement  of 
the  trouble.  In  other 
words,  American  en 
voys  had  been  told 
that  they  must  com 
mit  the  crime  of  brib 
ery  if  they  wished 
to  serve  their  coun 
try  effectively.  The 
names  of  the  persons 
making  these  insult 
ing  demands  were 

veiled  under  the  letters  X.  Y.  Z.  —  hence  the  matter  is  known  as 
the  X.  Y.  Z.  Affair.  Adams  and  the  people  at  large  resented 
this  treatment  of  the  commissioners,  and  a  war  with  France 
was  imminent.  Indeed  in  July,  1798,  American  vessels  of  war 
were  authorized  to  attack  French  men-of-war,  and  a  French 
frigate  was  actually  taken  in  February,  1799.  Washington 
was  made  commander  in  chief  of  the  land  forces  with  Hamilton 
as  second  in  command,  but  neither  had  occasion  to  serve 
actively. 

277.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  — Meanwhile  Adams  and  the 
Federalists,  who  had  the  sympathy  of  the  country  in  the  impend 
ing  war,  speedily  lost  it  by  passing  the  famous  "Alien  and 


CHARLES  COTESWORTH  PINCKNEY. 


208      ADMINISTRATION  OF   JOHN   ADAMS,    1797-1801.      [§  278 

Sedition  Laws."  The  editors  of  the  Kepublican  press,  being 
in  many  cases  foreign  born,  had  been  friendly  to  France  since 
the  days  of  the  French  Revolution  and  of  Genet's  mission,  and 
had  attacked  Adams  and  his  party  violently.  The  Federalists, 
believing  that  the  liberties  of  the  country  would  be  destroyed 
if  this  license  were  not  checked,  not  only  passed  a  rigid  natu 
ralization  law,  but  also  one  providing  for  the  removal  from  the 
country  of  dangerous  aliens  designated  by  the  President. 

278.  Features  of  the  Sedition   Law.  —  To    this   act   against 
foreigners,  which  was  tyrannical  in  theory  although  not  in 
practice,  an  even  worse  law  was  added  relative  to  sedition.     It 
was  designed  to  punish  persons  who  conspired  in  order  to  resist 
the   government's  measures  or  to  intimidate  officeholders.     It 
was.  also  aimed  at  persons  guilty  of  libeling  the  government, 
Congress,  or  the  President.     Practically  this  was  to  gag  the 
press  in  the  interest  of  the  Federalist  party.     The  first  con 
spicuously  effective  use  of  the  law  was  made  against  an  obnox 
ious  Republican  editor  named  Callender.     But  the  journalists 
took  shelter  behind  public  opinion,  and  the  Federalists  soon 
found  to  their  sorrow  that  they  had  gone  too  far  in  their  attack 
on  popular  liberties. 

279.  The  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions.  —  Jefferson  led 
the  resistance  to  the  unpopular  law,  and  as  he  could  hope  to  do 
nothing  with  Congress  until  a  new  election,  he  turned  to  the 
state  legislatures.     In  those  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  in  the 
fall  of  1798,  resolutions  were  adopted,  since  known  as  the  Vir 
ginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions.      These  declared  that,  as  the 
Constitution  was  a  compact  between  the  states,  the  latter  have 
individually  the  right  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  enactments 
of  the  general  government,  which  derives  its  power  to  make  laws 
from  the  Constitution.     In  pursuance  of  this  assumed  right  the 
legislatures  representing  the  two  states  pronounced  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Acts  unconstitutional  and  void  and  called  on  other 
states  to  do  likewise.     In  1799  the  Kentucky  legislature  passed 
a  second  series,  which  declared  that  all  acts  of  the  general 


§  281]  A  PERIOD   OF  DISSENSIONS.  209 

government  unauthorized  by  the  Constitution  ought  to  be  nulli 
fied  by  the  states.  The  immediate  object  and  effect  of  these 
resolutions  was  to  render  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  unpopu 
lar  and  suspected.  The  chief  effect,  however,  was  seen  later  to 
lie  in  the  support  given  by  the  names  of  Madison  and  Jeffer 
son,  authors  respectively  of  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  series, 
to  the  theory  of  the  "  compact "  origin  of  the  government  and 
to  the  subsequent  Carolina  doctrine  of  nullification. 

280.  Dissensions  in  the  Cabinet.  —  While  the  Federalists  were 
defeating  themselves  by  the  laws  they  passed,  Adams  was 
dividing  them  by  his  policy.    In  order  to  conclude  a  new  treaty 
with  France,  he  nominated  a  minister  to  that  country  without 
consulting  his  Cabinet.    This  not  only  alienated  his  Secretaries 
still  more,  but  also  irritated  those  Federalists  who  had  wished 
to  fight  France.     Kelations  became  so  strained  in  the  Cabinet 
that  Timothy  Pickering,  a  friend  of  Hamilton's,  had  to  be  re 
placed,  as  Secretary  of  State,  by  John  Marshall.     But  Adams 
secured  his  treaty  (1800)  through  a  commission  of  three,  instead 
of  through  the  Minister  he  had  at  first  nominated. 

281.  The  Presidential  Election  of  1800.  —  As  a  new  election 
was  approaching,  Hamilton  again  tried  to  oust  Adams  as  leader 
of  the  Federalists,  but  failed.     Adams,  with  C.  C.  Pinckney 
for  a  colleague,  received  the  votes  of  the  Federalist  electors 
but  was  defeated  by  Jefferson  by  eight  votes  (seventy-three  to 
sixty-five).      Unfortunately,  however,  Aaron  Burr,  the  New 
York  Democratic-Republican,  who  was  supported  for  Vice  Presi 
dent,  got  the  same  number  of  votes  as  Jefferson,  which  threw  the 
election  into  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  the  Federalists 
had  a  majority.     There  was  great  confusion,  and  for  a  time  it 
looked  as  if  Burr,  who  was  thought  to  be  unprincipled,  would 
be  chosen.     It  was  even  believed  by  some  persons  that  the 
Federalists  would  be  able  to  keep  themselves  in  power  on  the 
plea  that  old  officials  must  hold  over  until  new  ones  were  legally 
elected.    But  Hamilton  at  last  supported  Jefferson,  as  the  lesser 
of  two  evils,  and  through  the  votes  of  moderate  Federalist  con- 


210      ADMINISTRATION  OF  JOHN  ADAMS,    1797-1801.       [§  281 

gressmen,  like  James  A.  Bayard  of  Delaware,  the  Virginia 
statesman  was  elected.  This  solution  of  the  problem  was  most 
fortunate,  as  Jefferson  was  plainly  the  choice  of  the  people, 
and  as  civil  war  might  have  followed  a  successful  plot  to  deprive 
him  of  the  Presidency.  As  a  result  of  the  complication,  the 
Twelfth  Amendment  was  adopted  in  1804,  making  it  incum 
bent  upon  electors  to  vote  specifically  for  a  President  and  a 
Vice  President.  Just  before  retiring  from  office,  in  March,  1801, 
Adams  made  a  number  of  appointments  to  office,  known  as  the 
"  midnight  appointments."  These,  as  we  shall  see,  caused 
Jefferson  much  vexation.  It  was.  not  altogether  fair  for 
Adams  thus  to  hamper  his  successor,  nor  should  the  Federal 
ist  President  have  shown  his  vexation  at  the  result  of  the 
election  by  driving  out  of  Washington  early  in  the  morning  of 
March  4  in  order  not  to  be  obliged  to  attend  Jefferson's  inaugu 
ration.  Adams  and  the  Federalists  generally  believed,  how 
ever,  that  Jefferson  and  the  Republicans  would  begin  a  reign  of 
anarchy,  and  some  allowance  must  be  made  for  what  was, 
nevertheless,  an  act  of  great  discourtesy.  It  is  pleasant  to  add 
that  the  strained  relations  between  the  two  statesmen  were 
entirelv  mended  before  their  deaths. 


REFERENCES.  — GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS:  same  as  for  Chapter  XIII.,  with  the  addition  of: 
J.  T.  Morse,  John  Adams  ("American  Statesmen");  C.  F.  Adams, 
John  Adams.  See  also  the  collected  writings  of  John  Adams  ;  and  E.  1). 
Wai-field,  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

THE  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JEFFERSON,  1801-1809. 

JEFFERSONIAN  POLICY. 

282.  Jefferson's  Character  and  General  Policy.  — With  the  ad 
vent  of  the  popular  Jefferson  as  President,  the  aristocratic  Feder 
alists,  especially  those  of  New  England,  thought,  as  we  have  just 
seen,  that  anarchy  would  ensue.  Jefferson  was  supposed  to  be  an 
opponent  of  all  social  distinctions,  of  strong  organized  govern 
ment,-  and  even  of  religious  institutions.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
he  was  a  widely  cultured  country  gentleman  who  had  liberal 
political  theories,  a  sympathy  with  the  masses  of  the  people, 
especially  the  agriculturists,  and  a  profound  belief  in  human 
capacity  for  progress.  He  was  too  suspicious,  and  he  often 
lacked  dignity ;  he  had  no  great  executive  ability  and  preferred 
rather  to  manage  than  to  command,  but  he  understood  the  Ameri 
can  people  as  perhaps  no  other  man  has  done.  Furthermore, 
he  gave  in  his  writings  the  most  subtle  and  widely  current 
exposition  of  general  republican  ideas  that  has  ever  been  given. 
He  corresponded  with  leading  men  throughout  the  country  and 
by  his  letters  molded  public  opinion.  His  accession  to  power, 
so  far  from  overthrowing  the  government,  gave  it  a  popular 
support  it  could  have  received  in  no  other  way;  and  the 
successive  elections  of  his  pupils,  Madison  and  Monroe,  kept 
the  South  and  West  fairly  in  the  Union  until  the  central  govern 
ment  became  strong  enough  under  Jackson  to  crush  incipient 
efforts  to  divide  the  nation.  None  of  these  three  Virginian 
Presidents  was  a  commanding  man,  but  all  were  influential, 
and  their  policies  made  for  harmony.  Hence  the  period  of 

211 


212        ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.       [§  283 

their  administrations  had  an  importance  not  at  first  perceived 
They  helped  to  hold  the  agricultural  slave-holding  South  in 
line  with  the  manufacturing  and  commercial  North  and  East. 
They  made  mistakes,  were  embarrassed  by  foreign  complica 
tions  and  domestic  difficulties,  and  had  to  persuade  instead  of 
ruling.  But  they  represented  both  the  Union  and  the  section 
that  was  most  masterful  and  restive  of  control,  and  thus 
their  administrations  formed  a  necessary  stage  in  the  nation's 
evolution. 

283.  The  Revolution  of  1801. —  Another  point  to  be  remem 
bered  about  these  Presidents  is  the  fact  that  they  were  all  rep 
resentative  of  the  educated 
upper  classes,  and  yet  were 
in  full  sympathy  with  the 
common  people,  who  had 
just  obtained  political  con 
trol  of  the  country.  If  they 
had  been  demagogues  or  as 
ignorant  of  the  principles  of 
government  as  many  of  their 
supporters,  they  might  in 
deed  have  precipitated  the 
reign  of  anarchy  the  Feder 
alists  feared.  On  the  con 
trary,  they  governed  as  well 
as  their  aristocratic  op 
ponents  could  have  done, 
and  so  the  Federalist  party, 

which  had  ^cceeded  so  wel1 
in  establishing  the  govern 
ment,  but  had  unwisely  ignored  the  wishes  of  the  people,  sank 
into  insignificance,  without  any  serious  detriment  to  the  nation. 
The  Revolution  of  1801,  as  the  Democratic-Republican  victory 
has  been  called,  was  a  beneficent  one,  chiefly  because  it  took 
place  under  the  direction  and  control  of  trained  statesmen. 


284] 


JEFFERSONIAN  POLICY. 


213 


284.  Leading  Public  Men.  —  Jefferson  made  a  good  begin 
ning  by  delivering  a  conciliatory  inaugural  address1  and  by 
not  making  a  whole 
sale  removal  of  Fed 
eralist  officeholders. 
Where  commissions 
had  not  been  delivered 
to  Adams's  late  appoin 
tees,  he  withheld  them, 
and  he  removed  obnox 
ious  partisans,  but  on 
the  whole  his  attitude 
toward  the  civil  service 
was  fairly  conserva 
tive.  His  Cabinet  ap 
pointments  were  good, 
and  throughout  his  two 
terms  he  had  the  cor 
dial  support  of  his 
subordinates.  Madison, 
who  was  much  under 
his  influence,  was  a 
prudent  and  able  states 
man,  and  made  a  dignified  Secretary  of  State.  Albert  Gal- 
latin2  of  Pennsylvania,  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  proved 

1  This  address  is  still  often  quoted,  especially  by  leaders  of  the  Democratic 
party,  and  it  deserves  to  be  carefully  read  by  all  who  desire  to  understand 
the  cardinal  principles  of  Jefferson's  political  philosophy.  Many  of  its  phrases 
have  become  political  maxims  to  which  members  of  every  party  would  sub 
scribe. 

2  Born  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  1761;  died  at  Astoria,  Long  Island,  1849. 
Was  educated  at  Geneva,  and  came  to  America,  1780;  settled  as  manufacturer 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1784 ;  rose  rapidly  as  leader  of  the  Democratic-Republican 
party  ;  in  national  House  of  Representatives,  1795-1801 ;  showed  great  ability, 
especially  on  financial  topics  ;  was  made  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  Jefferson  ; 
held  the  position  from  1801  to  1813 ;  was  peace  commissioner  in  negotiating 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  1813-1814;   Minister  to  France,  1816-1823;   envoy  extraor 
dinary  to  Great  Britain  in  1826;   became  bank  president  in  New  York  City. 


JOHN  MARSH  ALT,. 


214         ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.      [§  285 

himself  second  only  to  Hamilton  as  a  financier.  Gallatin  was 
by  birth  a  Swiss,  and  is  a  striking  example  of  what  a  foreign- 
born  citizen  of  integrity  and  talents  can  accomplish  in  free 
America.  The  leading  man  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
was  the  Virginian,  John  Randolph  of  Roan  ok  e,  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  interesting  figures  in  our  history.  He  was 
too  independent  and  one-sided,  however,  to  work  long  in  har 
mony -with  the  administration,  and  became  in  course  of  time 
the  most  bitter  and  effective  of  its  opponents.  Another  Vir 
ginian,  in  the  judiciary  department,  was  a  formidable  opponent 
of  Jefferson.  This  was  John  Marshall,1  whom  Adams,  shortly 
before  he  left  office,  had  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  Marshall  was  a  Federalist,  and  in  favor  of  giving  the 
general  government  broader  powers  than  Jefferson  and  his 
party  thought  either  right  or  expedient.  The  President  and 
the  great  jurist  came  often  into  conflict,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
Burr  trial  (§  290)  ;  but  on  the  whole  the  advantage  rested  with 
Marshall,  since  he  remained  in  office  until  his  death,  in  1835, 
and  since  his  decisions  steadily  helped  to  build  up  the  power  of 
the  government. 

MEASURES   AND   EVENTS. 

285.  Financial  Affairs  and  War  with  the  Barbary  States.  —  One 
of  the  first  matters  that  occupied  the  new  administration  was 
the  reduction  of  taxes  and  the  decrease  of  the  public  debt, 
which  had  grown  rapidly  in  consequence  of  the  preparations 
for  war  with  France.  The  army  was  greatly  reduced,2  and 
much  less  was  spent  on  the  navy  —  a  branch  of  'the  service 
which  had  grown  under  Adams,  but  with  which  Jefferson,  as 
an  agriculturist,  had  little  sympathy.  He  endeavored  to 

1  Born,  1755 ;  died,  1835.    The  greatest  of  American  jurists ;  served  as  soldier 
at  Brandy  wine  and  Monmouth ;  contended  successfully  against  Patrick  Henry 
in  behalf  of  a  ratification  of  the  Constitution  in  1788;  was  envoy  to  France 
with  Gerry  and  Pinckney,  1797;  congressman,  1799-1800;  Secretary  of  State, 
1800-1801 ;  Chief  Justice  of  Supreme  Court  from  1801  till  his  death. 

2  Yet  West  Point  was  founded  in  1802. 


285] 


MEASURES  AND   EVENTS. 


215 


economize  ill  dlher  ways,  especially  by  doing  away  with 
internal  taxes  and  with  the  unnecessary  judges  added  by  the 
Federalists,  but  he  natur 
ally  found  that  the  de 
mands  of  a  growing 
country  had  to  be  met. 
Still,  the  next  ten  years 
were  distinctly  a  period  of 
retrenchment,  in  spite  of 
the  cost  of  Louisiana  and 
of  the  small  war  waged 
against  the  piratical  Bar- 
bary  States  (1801-1806). 
These  "  pests  of  Christen 
dom  "  had  become  too  im 
pudent  in  their  demands 
for  tribute  in  return  for 
promised  immunity  of 
American  shipping  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  they 
had  to  be  brought  to  their 
senses  by  the  bombard 
ment  of  Tripoli.  The  war 
furnished  training  to  our  sailors,  and  gave  Lieutenant  Stephen 
Decatur1  great  fame  for  his  exploit  in  burning  one  of  our 
frigates,  so  that  she  could  be  of  no  use  to  the  enemy.2 

iBorn  in  Maryland,  1779;  died,  1820.  Began  service  in  the  navy,  1798; 
distinguished  himself  against  Tripoli  in  1804 ;  commanded  the  Atlantic  squad 
ron  in  1812,  and  captured  the  British  ship  Macedonian ;  humbled  the  Barbary 
States  in  1815 ;  was  navy  commissioner  from  1816  to  1820,  when  he  was  killed 
in  a  duel  with  Commodore  Barren,  who  had  been  found  by  court-martial  guilty 
of  negligence  in  commanding  the  Chesapeake  against  the  Leopard  (§  293). 

2  The  Philadelphia,  commanded  by  Captain  Bainbridge,  while  pursuing  a 
frigate  of  the  enemy,  ran  upon  a  rock  off  the  Tripolitan  coast  and  was  cap 
tured,  along  with  her  captain  and  crew,  November  1,  1804.  Attempts  to 
liberate  the  prisoners  failed,  and  they  were  not  released  for  nearly  two  years. 
But  Decatur,  in  the  ketch  Intrepid,  ventured  one  dark  night  into  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli  and  destroyed  the  Philadelphia,  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy's  batteries. 


STEPHEN  DECATUR. 


216        ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.       [§  286 

286.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  —  This  purchase  was  the  most 
important  feature  of  either  of  Jefferson's  administrations.    The 
colony  of  Louisiana,  which  comprised  a  vast  stretch  of  terri 
tory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  had,  as  we  have  seen,  been  ceded 
by  France  to  Spain  in  1763  (§  115).     In  1800  Spain  ceded  it 
back  to  France.     As  the  latter  country  was  far  more  powerful 
and  dangerous  than  the  former,  and  as  the  ambitious  Napoleon 
then  ruled  France,  great  alarm  was  felt  in  America  at  the  pros 
pect  of  having  a  rival  nation  grow  up  across  the  Mississippi. 
Affairs  were  made  still  more  serious  by  the  denial  of  the  right 
of  depositing  their  goods  at  the  port  of  New  Orleans  to  the 
inhabitants  of  our  Western  country.     These  citizens  were  thus 
unable  to  transfer  their  merchandise  from  river  boats  to  ocean 
vessels,  and  were  cut  off  from  profitable  markets.     Even  the 
pacific  Jefferson  took  the  alarm,1  and  James  Monroe  of  Virginia 
was  dispatched  to  France  to  try  to  buy  a  strip  of  territory  in 
cluding  New  Orleans.     Because  of  the  impending  war  between 
Great  Britain  and  France,  and  the   consequent  necessity  of 
defending  Louisiana,  and  for  other  reasons,  Napoleon  just  be 
fore  Monroe's   arrival  made  the  regular  American   Minister, 
R.  R.  Livingston,  an  offer  to  sell  the  whole  Louisiana  region. 
His  offer  was  accepted,  and  the  price  was  set  at  fifteen  million 
dollars,  less  certain  claims  against  the  French. 

287.  Controversy  over  the  Purchase.  —  Jefferson  declared,  con 
sistently  with  his  own  principles,  that  no  power  to    acquire 
territory  was  allowed  the  general  government  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  and  that  therefore  an  amendment  must  be  made  to  that 
document  in  order  that  the  purchase  might  be  valid.     But  an 
amendment  would   take  time,  and   unless   the   bargain   were 
closed  at  once  the  new  territory  might  be  lost  forever,  espe 
cially  as  Spain  was  indignant  on  account  of  Napoleon's  action. 

1  Jefferson  had  long  been  friendly  to  France  and  more  or  less  hostile 
to  Great  Britain,  but  when  he  heard  that  the  former  power  had  acquired 
Louisiana,  he  wrote :  "  The  day  that  France  takes  possession  of  New  Orleans 
fixes  the  sentence  which  is  to  restrain  her  forever  within  her  low-water  mark. 
From  that  moment  we  must  marry  ourselves  to  the  British  fleet  and  nation." 


§287] 


MEASURES  AND   EVENTS. 


217 


So  the  treaty  was  ratified,  and  a  strict  constmctionist  President 
furnished  a  weighty  precedent  to  his  political  opponents.  The 
latter,  however,  did  not  perceive  the  value  of  Louisiana  to  the 
Union,  and  would  have  been  better  pleased  had  Jefferson 
clung  to  his  principles.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  he  was  right,  and 
the  Federalists  wrong.  The  contiguity  of  the  territory  made 


THE 
LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


it  necessary  that  it  should  belong  to  the  United  States,  and  it 
was  better  to  buy  it  than  to  fight  for  it  at  some  future  day.  It 
is  true  that  the  boundaries  of  the  region  were  unsettled,  and 
were  sure  to  cause  trouble,  and  that  a  spread  of  slavery  was 
also  involved.  But  the  people  were  wise  when  they  indorsed 
Jefferson's  action  by  reflecting  him  in  1804  by  an  overwhelm 
ing  majority.  Jefferson  himself  was  wise  in  not  speculating 
whether  or  not  the  states  formed  west  of  the  Mississippi 
would  adhere  to  the  Union,  —  the  Federalists  feared  they 


218         ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.       [§  288 

would  not,  —  and  in  having  the  new  region  explored  by  Lewis 
and  Clark  and  Lieutenant  Pike.  So  great  was  the  opposition 
of  New  England  to  this  acquisition  of  territory  by  the  nation, 
that  some  Federalist  leaders  actually  thought  that  they  might 
persuade  the  Eastern  states  to  detach  themselves  from  the 
Union.  Their  schemes  were  abortive,  but  were  destined  soon 
to  bear  bitter  fruit  (§§  313-315). 

288.  The  Election  of  1804.  —  The  election  of  1804  was  held 
under   the   Twelfth    Amendment    (§    281).      Burr,   who   had 
endeavored  to  secure  the  Presidency  through  Federalist  help, 
and  who  was  besides,  as  we  have  seen,  a  suspicious  character, 
was  not  available  for  reelection  to  the  Vice  Presidency.     Jef 
ferson  was  therefore  given  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  as 
a  colleague.     The  two  Federalist  candidates,  C.  C.  Pinckney 
and  Kufus  King  of  New  York,  received  but  fourteen  electoral 
votes,  so  complete  was  the  demoralization  of  the  party. 

289.  Burr's  Conspiracy. — Burr  ran  as  an  independent  can 
didate  for  the  governorship  of  New  York,  but  was   defeated, 
again  chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of   Hamilton.      In 
consequence,  he  picked  a  quarrel  with  the  latter,  which  led  to 
a  duel.     Hamilton  was  killed  at  the  first  shot,  and  the  death 
of  so  brilliant  a  man  in  such  a  manner  aroused  the  indignation 
of  the  entire  country.1     Burr  became  almost  an  outcast.     As 
he  was  an  ambitious  schemer,  he  undertook  in  1806  to  induce 
a  secession  of  the  Western  states  from  the  Union.     He  seems 
also  to  have  dreamed  of  playing  the  part  of  Napoleon  in  the 
New  World,  and  of  establishing  an  empire  in  Texas  or  Mexico. 
He  gained  the  support  of  a  well-to-do  Irish  gentleman  named 
Blennerhassett,  who  helped  to  gather  arms  and  men  in  Ohio 
and    Kentucky,   and   as   a   consequence   ruined   himself    and 
family.     Burr  also  tampered  with  other  leading  citizens  of  the 
West,  particularly  with  General  Wilkinson,  the  American  com 
mander  at  New  Orleans,  who  reported  his  schemes  to  Jefferson. 

1  Among  the  people  of  the  Northern  states  dueling  was  practically  put  a 
stop  to  by  Hamilton's  death. 


§  292]  MEASURES   AND   EVENTS.  219 

After  some  delay,  the  President  made  use  of  local  militia,  and 
Burr's  expedition  was  reduced  to  a  fiasco,  only  about  one  hun 
dred  men  descending  the  Mississippi  with  him.  He  finally 
abandoned  these,  and  after  some  wandering  in  the  almost  unin 
habited  territory  that  lay  to  the  south  of  Tennessee,  he  was 
captured  and  sent  to  Richmond,  Virginia,  for  trial  (1807). 

290.  Burr's  Trial.  —  Jefferson  showed  great  interest  in  the 
case,  and  almost  seemed  pitted  against  Chief  Justice  Marshall. 
The  latter  ordered  the  President  to  appear  as  a  witness,  but 
the  Executive  very  properly  refused  to  do  anything  beyond 
sending  papers.    Marshall  declared  that  an  overt  act  of  treason 
must  be  proved,  but  as  Burr  had  not  yet  levied  war  against  the 
United  States  or  adhered  to  their  enemies,  —  actions  constitut 
ing  treason  according  to  the  Constitution,  —  and  as  his  muster 
ing  of  men  had  not  taken  place  in  Virginia,  there  was  little  or 
nothing  for  the  prosecuting  attorneys  to  proceed  on,  and  the 
case  came  to  an  abrupt  close.     Marshall's  decision  has  prob 
ably  done  good  in  making  trials  for  treason  practically  unknown 
in  the  United  States.     But  he  can  hardly  be  acquitted  of  hav 
ing  allowed  his  feelings  against  Jefferson  to  get  the  better  of 
him.     On  the  other  hand,  Jefferson  had,  in  his  easy-going  way, 
allowed  Burr  to  go  too  far  before  interfering  with  his  plans. 
Burr  himself  went  to  England,  then  returned  to  New  York, 
and  soon  passed  from  public  notice. 

291.  The  Impeachment  of  Justice  Chase.  —  Two  years  previous 
to  the  miscarriage  of  justice  in  Burr's  case,  another  trial  of  a  dif 
ferent  nature  had  failed  almost  as  signally.     This  was  the  trial, 
before  the  Senate,  of  Justice  Samuel  Chase  of  the  Supreme 
Court.     Chase  was   a  violent  Federalist,  who   had  been   im 
peached  by  the  Democratic-Republican  House  of  Representa 
tives  for  partisan  conduct  on  the  bench.     He  was  ably  defended, 
while  John  Randolph,  who  led  the  prosecution,  completely  mis 
managed  his  case.     The  result  was  a  failure  to  convict  (1805). 

292.  Troubles  with  Great  Britain  and  France.  —  More  serious 
matters  now  confronted  Jefferson.     Since  the  signing  of  Jay's 


220         ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.      [§  293 

Treaty,  American  shipping  had  flourished,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  being  a  neutral  nation,  the  United  States  could  convey  to 
France  and  Spain  the  produce  of  their  West  Indian  colonies, 
the  ships  of  the  two  European  countries  not  being  serviceable 

on  account  of  the  war 
with  Great  Britain, 
whose  fleets  swept  the 
ocean.  By  1805,  how 
ever,  the  jealousy  of 
British  shipowners 
had  been  aroused  and 
the  Prime  Minister, 
William  Pitt  the 
Younger,  applied  to 
American  vessels  what 
was  known  as  the 
"  Eule  of  1756."  This 
prevented  a  neutral 
from  enjoying,  in  time 
of  war,  trading  privi 
leges  not  allowed  in 
time  of  peace.  Brit 
ish  nieri-of-war,  there- 

WlLLIAM    PlTT   THE   YOUNGER.  „  , 

lore,    began    to    seize 

American  ships,  and  the  old  impressment  abuses  were  increased. 
Meanwhile,  Jay's  Treaty  expired,  and  a  new  treaty,  signed 
by  Monroe  and  William  Pinkney,  a  brilliant  Maryland  lawyer 
and  orator,  was  not  honorable  to  us  and  was  not  even  laid  before 
the  Senate.  One  provision  of  it  ran,  that  Great  Britain  would 
not  be  bound  by  it  unless  the  United  States  undertook  to  resist 
Napoleon's  Berlin  Decree  of  November  21,  1806.  This  was 
a  paper  blockade  of  the  British  Isles,  in  retaliation  for  the 
British  blockade  of  the  Continent.  In  other  words,  Napoleon, 
who  by  that  time  had  humbled  most  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe,  had  declared  Continental  ports  closed  to  British  ships, 
although  he  had  no  effective  means  of  keeping  them  out. 


§294]  MEASURES  AND   EVENTS.  221 

Great  Britain  wished  to  force  America  to  take  sides  against 
France.  An  Order  in  Council  of  November,  1807,  actually 
authorized  the  seizure  of  any  neutral  vessel  on  a  voyage 
to  closed  ports,  unless  it  had  previously  touched  at  a  British 
port.  To  this  order  Napoleon  replied  by  the  Milan  Decree 
(December,  1807),  authorizing  the  capture  of  any  vessel  that 
had  entered  a  British  port.  Thus  American  neutral  trade  was 
practically  an  impossibility,  and  an  important  portion  of  our 
population  was  seriously  affected. 

293.  The  Embargo.  —  Under  these  harassing  circumstances, 
Jefferson  was  forced  to  adopt  a  more  energetic  foreign  policy 
than  at  all  suited  his  pacific  disposition.     Diplomatic  efforts 
were  wasted  on  headstrong  opponents,  who  despised  a  weak, 
young  nation.      So   the  Non-intercourse  Act,  forbidding  the 
importation   of   goods   from    Great   Britain   or    her    colonies, 
was  passed  in  the  spring  of  1806,  but  did  not  go  into  effect 
for  nearly  two  years ;   by  1808  it  had  been  determined  that 
mere  non-importation  was  not  a  sufficiently  drastic  remedy, 
and  that  an  embargo,  forbidding  all  American  vessels  to  leave 
for  foreign  ports,  was   necessary.     In  the  interim,  relations 
with  Great  Britain  had  been  strained  to  the  point  of  breaking, 
through  the  fact  that  on    June   27,  1807,  the   British    ship 
Leopard,  acting  under  the  orders  of  an  admiral  at  Halifax, 
fired  on  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  and  took  from  the 
latter  four  sailors,  three   of  whom  were  American  citizens.1 
Jefferson  at  once  ordered  British  warships  out  of  American 
waters   and   tried    to   bring  the  impressment   controversy  to 
an  issue,  but  the  British  merely  disavowed  the  action  of  their 
admiral.     This  conduct,  together  with  the  Order  in  Council  of 
November,  1807,  precipitated  the  Embargo. 

294.  Nature  and  Object  of  the  Embargo.  —  The  Embargo  was 
partly  intended  to  save  the  lives  and  property  of  the  Americans 


1  The  Chesapeake  was  taken  by  surprise,  and  Commodore  Barron  had  no 
time  to  make  an  effective  resistance. 


222        ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.      [§  295 

—  who  were,  nevertheless,  willing  to  risk  both  on  account  of 
the  great  profits  accruing  from  trade  with  Europe  —  by  pre 
venting  ships  from  leaving  port  and  running  the  risk  of  being 
captured  by  British  men-of-war,  or  of  being  confiscated  in  Con 
tinental  ports.  Jefferson,  however,  had  another  object  in  view. 
He  believed  that  both  England  and  Europe  would  suffer  so 
much  from  the  loss  of  the  American  trade  that  the  combatants 
would  be  forced  to  abandon  their  repressive  measures  against 
the  ships  of  neutrals.  He  miscalculated  the  stubbornness  and 
malignity  of  both  parties,  and  both  Non-intercourse  and  Em 
bargo,  instead  of  proving  coercive,  proved  irritating  and  mis 
chievous.  Nevertheless,  there  was  precedent  in  favor  of  the 
experiment,  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  general  human  wel 
fare  Jefferson  was  justified  in  trying  it.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  politics,  the  experiment  was  disastrous,  but  the  fact 
that  he  induced  Congress  to  adopt  it  is  a  conclusive  proof  of 
Jefferson's  capacity  to  control  men. 

295.  Difficulty  of  Enforcing  the  Embargo.  —  It  proved  very 
difficult,  however,  to  enforce  such  legislation,  for  the  Federal 
ists  made  capital  out  of  it,  while  Jefferson's  Southern  supporters 
upheld  it  against  their  wills.     New  England  ships  rotted  at 
their  wharves,   and   in  Virginia  the  staple  tobacco  remained 
unsold.     Jefferson  was  overwhelmed  with  petitions  to  change 
his  policy,  but  held  out  persistently.     The  British  government 
also  held  to  its  former  course  and  Napoleon  to  his.     Before 
Jefferson's  second  term  had  expired,  it  was  quite  clear  that  new 
measures  must  be  tried  in  order  to  assert  the  nation's  dignity 
abroad  and  to  secure  civil  peace  at  home.     The  pupil  Madison, 
who  became  President  in  1809,  had  to  undo  in  part,  at  least, 
the  work  of  the  master. 

CHARACTER   OF  JEFFERSON'S   STATESMANSHIP. 

296.  General  View  of  Jefferson's  Administrations.  —  Viewed 
as  a  whole,  Jefferson's  two  administrations  do  not  prove  him  to 
have  been  a  great  executive.     He  was  a  political  philosopher 


§  296]     CHARACTER  OF  JEFFERSON'S  STATESMANSHIP.     223 


FULTON'S  STEAMBOAT,  THE 
"  CLERMONT." 


rather  than  a  practical  statesman.  He  was  more  at  home  with 
ideas  than  with  facts.  But  by  his  purchase  of  Louisiana  he  saved 
the  country  far  more  than  his  in 
effective  diplomacy  and  his  Embargo 
cost  it,  and  he  proved  conclusively 
that  democracy  was  not  contradic 
tory  to  the  idea  of  union.  He 
proved  also  that  the  responsibilities 
of  office  are  likely  always  to  prevent 
a  theorist  from  going  to  extremes; 
for,  although  the  father  of  the  strict 
constructionists  of  the  Constitution,  he  left  them  the  difficult 

task  of  explaining  at  least  one 
very  loose  construction  of  his 
own.  Perhaps  at  another  period 
his  weakness  might  not  have 
been  apparent.  He  was  intel 
lectually  far  in  advance  of  his 
countrymen,  and  was  thus  an  ob 
ject  of  suspicion  to  many  worthy 
citizens  of  a  land  which  had  then 
done  little  for  the  cause  of  letters 
or  of  science.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  only  slowly  and  partly  out 
grew  the  prejudices  of  the  agri 
cultural  class  to  which  he  belonged. 
It  was  not  until  late  in  life  that  he 
showed  sympathy  with  the  manu 
facturing  and  commercial  enterprise  which  was  destined  in  a 
few  years  to  make  the  country  of  Robert  Fulton1  and  Eli 

1  Born  in  Pennsylvania,  1765 ;  died,  1815.  Student  of  portrait  painting ;  went 
to  England  in  1786 ;  soon  began  to  study  engineering  and  inventions ;  was  in 
France,  1797-1804,  where  he  invented  a  torpedo  which  he  vainly  tried  to  in 
duce  Napoleon  to  adopt ;  failed  in  a  similar  attempt  in  Great  Britain,  1804- 
1806;  returned  to  New  York,  1807;  devised  and  successfully  propelled  his 
steamboat  Clermont  from  New  York  to  Albany  in  1807  —  the  beginning  of  suc 
cessful  navigation  by  steam. 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


224         ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   JEFFERSON,    1801-1809.      [§  29? 


Whitney1  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  prosperous  nations 
in  the  world. 

297.   Jefferson  an  Idealist.  —  Americans  have  been  right  in 
recognizing    in    Jefferson    their    main    political    spokesman. 

No  other  man  has  ever  so  thor 
oughly  brought  the  people  to 
his  way  of  thinking,  or  so  com 
pletely  held  his  own  with  politi 
cians  of  all  degrees  of  ability  and 
ambition.  Congress  followed  his 
lead  almost  blindly,  even  in  mili 
tary  matters,  about  which  he 
knew  little.  His  popularity 
speedily  recovered  from  the  de 
cline  it  experienced  during  the 
days  of  the  Embargo,  and  for 
nearly  twenty  years  his  home 
at  Monticello  was  almost  like  a 
pilgrim's  shrine.  His  fame  has 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  some  his 
torians,  but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  posterity  will  conclude  that 
he  was  in  advance  not  merely  of  his  age,  but  of  his  century. 


ELI  WHITNEY. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XIII.,  with  the 
addition  of:  Henry  Adams,  History  of  the  United  States  (1800-1817, 
9  vols.). 

SPECIAL  WORKS:  J.  Schouler,  Thomas  Jefferson  ("Makers  of  Amer 
ica");  H.  S.  Randall,  Thomas  Jefferson  (3  vols.)  ;  J.  Parton,  TJiomas 
Jefferson,  Aaron  Burr ;  Henry  Adams,.  Albert  Gallatin,  John  Randolph 
("American  Statesmen  ")  ;  A.  B.  Magruder,  John  Marshall  ("American 
Statesmen").  See  also  T.  Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the  West,  Vol.  IV.  ; 
and  the  writings  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin.  E.  E.  Bale's 
Philip  Nolan's  Friends  deals  with  Burr's  Conspiracy,  and  G.  W.  Cable's 
Grandissimes  with  New  Orleans  shortly  after  the  American  occupation. 

1  Born  in  Connecticut,  1765 ;  died,  1825.  Invented  the  cotton  gin  in  1793, 
which  increased  enormously  the  importance  of  slave  labor  by  raising  the 
cotton  crop  in  ten  years  from  about  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  to  more 
than  forty-two  million  pounds  a  year.  Also  established  near  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  the  first  arms  factory  in  the  country. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,    1809-1817. 
OUTBREAK   OF   WAR. 

298.  Madison's  Perplexities. — Just  before  Madison's  accession 
to  the  Presidency  the  Embargo  was  supplanted  by  a  non-inter 
course  law  which  permitted  trade  with  nations  not  controlled 
by  France  or  Great  Britain.  This  legitimate  trade  and  the  large 
amount  of  fraudulent  shipping  that  went  on  brought  temporary 
wealth  to  American  shipowners,  and  there  even  seemed  to  be  a 
prospect  of  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  People  began  to  say 
that  Madison  was  a  better  President  than  his  predecessor,  who 
continued  to  advise  him.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  was  a  weaker 
man,  had  a  poorer  Cabinet,  and  was  soon  involved-  in  greater 
difficulties  than  those  encountered  by  Jefferson.  For  British 
statesmanship  was  at  that  time  at  a  very  low  ebb;  the  con 
cessions  agreed  to  by  Erskine,  the  British  envoy,  were  dis 
avowed  at  home,  and  a  new  envoy  actually  ventured  to  insult 
Madison  by  accusing  him  of  deception  in  negotiations  relating 
to  the  prospective  treaty.  Yet  party  politics  were  at  a  still 
lower  ebb  in  this  country,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
Federalists  showered  social  attentions  on  James  Jackson,  the 
envoy  who  had  so  grossly  insulted  the  President.  Neverthe 
less  Congress,  tired  of  legislation  that  seemed  to  produce 
no  effect  either  on  England  or  on  France,  did  away  with 
non-intercourse,  with  the  proviso  that  if  one  of  the  two 
contending  powers  annulled  its  vexatious  decrees  and  the 
other  did  not,  non-intercourse  should  be  maintained  with  the 
nation  still  holding  out  ("Macon's  Bill,"  No.  2,  May  1,  1810). 
Napoleon  took  advantage  of  this  proviso,  although  really  show- 

225 


226  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,    1809-1817.        [§299 

ing  America  very  little"  favor.  He  showed  enough,  however, 
to  make  Great  Britain  appear  most  in  the  wrong,  and  on 
November  1,  1810,  Madison  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
trade  suspended  with  that  power.  This  was  a  sorry  commentary 
on  the  proclamation  of  the  preceding  April  renewing  trade  with 
Great  Britain ;  for  the  sole  result  of  the  diplomacy  of  the  year 
had  been  to  let  loose  more  American  ships  to  be  captured  by  the 
British  or  confiscated  by  the  French. 

299.  War  Advocated.  — Madison,  who  was  prudent  like  Jeffer 
son,  and  who  was  more  of  a  student  of  politics  than  a  vigorous 
man  of  affairs,  did  not  desire  war  with  either  Great  Britain  or 
France  any  more  than  Jefferson  had  done,  but  he  was  forced  into 
hostilities  with  the  former  power  before  the  close  of  his  first 
administration.  The  temper  of  the  American  people  had  been 
sorely  tried  by  the  Embargo  and  the  non-intercourse  policy  as 
well  as  by  British  arrogance  throughout  the  whole  controversy. 
British  statesmen  spoke  ill  of  Americans  when  they  should  have 
tried  to  enlist  their  sympathies  in  the  war  Great  Britain  was 
waging  against  despotism  personified  in  Napoleon.  The  British 
were  also  thought  to  have  stirred  up  the  Western  Indians,  who 
were  crushed  on  Tippecanoe  River  by  General  William  Henry 
Harrison  in  1811.  The  Western  people  were  thus  greatly  em 
bittered  against  Great  Britain,  and  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky 
represented  their  feelings  when,  as  Speaker  of  the  new  House 
of  Representatives,  he  helped  to  force  Madison  into  consenting 
to  war.  With  Clay  were  joined  many  young,  high-spirited  men, 
some  of  whom,  like  John  C.  Calhoun1  of  South  Carolina,  while 
adhering  to  the  Jefferson-Madison  school  of  politics,  were  in 
clined  to  be  impatient  with  their  more  cautious  elders.  It  is 

1  Born,  1782 ;  died,  1850.  Graduated  at  Yale,  and  early  developed  remark 
able  powers ;  entered  House  of  Representatives  in  1811 ;  was  Secretary  of  War 
during  Monroe's  administrations;  was  Vice  President,  1825-1832,  when  in 
consequence  of  radical  differences  with  Jackson,  he  resigned  his  position  and 
entered  the  Senate,  where  his  ability  at  once  made  him  a  leader  of  the 
"States'  Rights"  party  ;  was  Secretary  of  State  under  Tyler  in  1844-1845; 
reentered  the  Senate  in  1845,  where  he  held  the  leadership  of  the  Southern 
Democrats  till  his  death. 


300] 


OUTBREAK  OF   WAR. 


227 


said  that  they  threatened  Madison  with  loss  of  a  second  term 
if  he  would  not  agree  to  war  with  Great  Britain.1  Their  pol 
icy  eventually  proved 
beneficial  to  the  coun 
try,  since  it  strength 
ened  the  national 
spirit  and  showed 
that  the  new  genera 
tion  contained  men 
too  strong  to  be  bound 
by  the  traditions  of 
the  Revolutionary  pe 
riod  ;  but  it  was  tardy 
and  lacking  in  cos 
mopolitan  breadth  of 
view. 

300.  Outlook  for  the 
War  of    1812.  — Not 

only  was  the  War  of 
1812  a  political  blun 
der  in  so  far  as  it 
helped  Napoleon  by  . 
harassing  Great  Brit 
ain,  but  also  owing  to  the  condition  of  America  at  the 
time  of  its  inception.  The  national  finances  were  by  no 
means  adequate  to  its  cost,  and  the  incompetence  of  Gallatin's 
successor  in  the  Treasury  Department  made  the  borrowing 
that  had  to  be  undertaken  especially  burdensome.  The 
army,  too,  was  small  and  poorly  officered  at  the  first.  The 
volunteers  were  brave  and  in  the  West  were  very  anxious  to 
serve,  but  they  and  their  leaders  absurdly  overrated  the  ease 
with  which  Canada  could  be  conquered.  Henry  Clay  actually 
boasted  that  his  Kentucky  constituents  could  accomplish  this 

1  This  statement,  put  thus  baldly,  is  probably  an  exaggeration,  but  it  is  cer 
tain  that  strong  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  Madison,  and  that  he  finally 
yielded  to  the  "  War  Hawks,"  as  the  party  opposed  to  peace  was  styled. 


JOHN  C.  CALHOUM. 


228  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON,   1809-1817.        [§301 

exploit  without  assistance.  Besides,  the  political  discontent  of 
New  England,  where  the  Federalists  were  English  sympathizers, 
and  where  much  capital  was  invested  in  shipping  which  would 
be  cooped  up  during  the  war,  made  it  difficult  to  secure  militia 
from  the  very  portion  of  the  country  nearest  the  chief  seat  of 
operations.  Volunteers  were  indeed  obtained  from  New  Eng 
land,  and  after  a  while  both  officers  and  men  made  a  better 
showing  in  the  field.  But  when  all  is  said,  the  land  operations 
of  the  war,  except  in  the  splendid  instance  of  the  battle  of 
New  Orleans,  afford  little  cause  for  patriotic  gratification.  A 
prediction  to  this  effect  might  have  been  made  about  the  navy, 
for  the  less  than  two  score  American  vessels  seemed  but  a  baga 
telle  in  comparison  with  the  British  navy,  which  contained  about 
fifty  times  as  many.1  But  in  the  end  the  exploits  of  our  seamen 
formed  almost  the  sole  bright  spot  in  an  exceedingly  gloomy 
period. 

301.  Opening  of  the  War.  — War  was  formally  declared  on  June 
18,  1812,  the  majority  in  neither  house  being  overwhelming. 
Two  days  previously  the  obnoxious  Orders  in  Council  had  been 
revoked.     Although  the  news  was  received  on  this  side  of  the 
ocean  before  hostilities  had  fairly  begun,  the  government  ad 
hered  to  its  tardy  determination  to  fight.     This  course  seemed 
justifiable  since  the  impressment  trouble  and  the  blockade  of 
the  coasts  still  called  for  redress,  and  the  temper  of  at  least  a 
part  of  the  nation  had  been  inflamed. 

302.  Hull's  Surrender.  —  It  was  easy  to  perceive  from  the 
outset  that  the  theater  of  the  war  on  land  would  be  much  the 
same  as  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  —  that  is,  it  would 
stretch   along   our  northern   boundary  from   Maine  to   Lake 
Michigan.     The   main   attacks   by  the  Americans   would  be 
made  through  Lakes  Ontario  and  Champlain.     At  first,  bodies 
of  troops   were   moved    over   the   border   from   Detroit   and 
Buffalo.     General  William  Hull,  the  governor  of  Michigan  Ter- 

i  As  in  the  later  years  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  it  was  fortunate  that 
British  ships  were  so  fully  occupied  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 


OUTBREAK  OF   WAR. 


229 


ritory,  who  led  the  first  advance  with  over  two  thousand  troops, 
mainly  volunteers  from  Ohio,  was  ignominiously  repulsed  by 
the  Canadians  and  surrendered  Detroit  in  a  cowardly  manner 
(August  16, 1812),  for  which  he  was  afterward  court-martialed 
and  found  guilty.  Hull  had  issued  a  very  boastful  proclama 
tion  on  his  entry  into  Canada,  and  his  surrender  of  an  important 
fortress  without  firing  a  gun  was  almost  unpardonable,  in  view 
of  such  high-flown  pretensions.  Altogether,  the  Canadians 
under  Isaac  Brock,  the  able  governor  of  Upper  Canada,  with 
their  allies,  the  Indians  under 
Tecumseh,  a  famous  warrior  and 
the  inveterate  foe  of  the  Ameri 
cans,  had  outmaneuvered  their  op 
ponents,  and  proved  conclusively 
that  the  volunteers,  rapidly  gath 
ering  in  Ohio  and  Kentucky, 
would  have  to  be  well  led  in 
order  to  secure  any  success.  To 
get  such  leaders  was  not  easy, 
but  Madison  finally  selected  the 
right  man  in  General  William 
Henry  Harrison,  the  victor  at 
Tippecanoe  (§  299).  It  was  late 
in  the  year,  however,  and  the 
country  was  a  very  difficult  one 
to  penetrate.  The  impatient  public  had  therefore  to  wait 
quietly  for  the  success  that  was  to  retrieve  the  early  losses, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  capture  of  Fort  Dearborn, 
on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Chicago. 

303.  Other  Defeats.  —  Meanwhile  General  Van  Kensselaer,  of 
the  New  York  militia,  had  gathered  about  six  thousand  eager 
men,  and  on  October  13  was  forced,  by  the  general  impatience  for 
a  victory,  prematurely  to  cross  the  Niagara  Kiver  from  Lewiston 
to  Queenstown.  Hull's  surrender  had  left  Brock  free  to  manage 
the  Canadian  defense.  The  American  regulars  fought  well, 


MAP  OF  OPERATIONS  IN  CANADA, 
1812-1814. 


230  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON,   1809-1817.        [§  304 

but  the  militia  crossed  only  in  part,  and  the  result  was  another 
surrender.  Yet  the  enemy  also  suffered  heavily,  for  the  brave 
Brock  fell  defending  the  heights  of  Queenstown,  where  his  tall 
monument  may  now  be  seen.  Van  Rensselaer,  for  his  part, 
resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  still  less  capable  General 
Alexander  Smyth,  who  imitated  Hull  in  bragging  and  in  in 
effectiveness,  but  who  dismissed  his  volunteers  to  their  homes 
instead  of  surrendering  them.  Equally  futile  were  the  at 
tempts  to  reach  Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain ;  and  the 
year  would  have  ended  in  complete  gloom,  so  far  as  land  opera 
tions  were  concerned,  had  not  the  Americans,  in  their  turn, 
repulsed  an  invading  force  at  Ogdensburg.  In  the  latter  fight 
Jacob  Brown,  a  Quaker  farmer  of  New  York,  showed  that  he 
was  the  coming  general  for  the  war  in  the  northeast,  if  that 
war  were  to  be  carried  on  seriously  and  not  with  manifestoes 
and  ill-directed  sallies  of  raw  troops.  Another  soldier  of  merit 
was  also  discovered  in  the  person  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  Win- 
field  Scott,  a  young  Virginian  who  fought  finely  at  Queenstown 
Heights. 

EXPLOITS   OF  THE  NAVY. 

304.  The  War  at  Sea.  —  On  the  sea,  events  took  a  different 
turn  from  the  first,  although  the  government's  main  intention 
was  to  use  its  few  ships  l  in  guarding  the  chief  ports.  On 
August  19,  1812,  Captain  Isaac  Hull 2  of  the  frigate  Constitu 
tion3  (44  guns),  which  had  previously  been  chased  into  Boston  by 
a  British  squadron,  met  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  the  enemy's 

1  There  were  so  few  that  there  were  not  enough  to  go  the  round  of  the  cap 
tains.    So  the  officers  took  turns  in  commanding,  in  order  that  each  might  get 
a  chance  to  distinguish  himself. 

2  Born  in  Connecticut,  1773;  died,  1843.    Served  in  merchant  marine  from 
1784  to  1798,  when  he  entered  the  navy ;  engaged  in  the  Barhary  War  in  com 
mand  of  the  Argiis;  commissioned  captain  in  1806;  given  command  of  the 
Constitution  in  1807 ;  won  great  distinction  hy  capturing  the  Guerriere  with 
a  loss  of  fourteen  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  enemy  lost  seventy-nine ; 
commanded  the  Pacific  and  Mediterranean  squadrons  and  served  on  the  naval 
board  at  Washington. 

3  See  O.  W.  Holmes's  Old  Ironsides. 


§304;} 


EXPLOITS  OP  THE  NAVY. 


231 


Guerri&re  (38  guns),  which,  had  made  an  unsavory  reputation 
for  itself  by  searching  American  vessels.  The  American  ship 
was  somewhat  the  stronger,  but  no  one  could  have  foreseen 
that  she  would  overcome  her  adversary  within  half  an  hour. 
About  two  months  later  (October  18),  in  a  very  similar  contest, 
the  American  sloop  of  war  Wasp  (18  guns),  under  Captain 
Jacob  Jones,  took  the 
British  brig  Frolic  (20 
guns).  In  consequence 
of  these  unexpected 
victories  Great  Brit 
ain's  naval  prestige 
was  greatly  shaken 
aVid  American  pride 
correspondingly  stim 
ulated.  Analysis  has 
shown  that  the  results 
were  mainly  due  to  the 
better  gun  very  of  the 
Americans.  Equally 
fortunate  for  the 
younger  nation  were 
the  fights  between  the 
frigate  United  States 
(44  guns),  under  Cap 
tain  Decatur  (§  285, 
note  1),  and  the  British 
frigate  Macedonian  (38  guns);  and  between  the  Constitution, 
then  under  Captain  Bainbridge,  and  the  British  Java.  The 
former  contest  took  place  near  the  Madeiras,  on  October  25 ; 
the  latter,  off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  on  December  29,  1812.  Con 
gress  immediately  authorized  the  building  of  new  ships,  and 
while  the  British  were  able  to  sweep  American  commerce  from 
the  seas,  the  people  consoled  themselves  with  the  thought  of 
the  superb  victories  of  their  ships  and  of  the  damage  American 
privateers  were  doing  English  shipping  on  every  ocean  and 


CAPTAIN  ISAAC  HULL. 


THE  "  CONSTITUTION." 


232 


305] 


EXPLOITS  OF  THE  NAVY. 


233 


sea  —  even  within  Dublin  Bay  itself.      At  last,  however,  re 
verses  came,  when,  in  1813,  the  Chesapeake l  was  captured  by 
the  British  Shannon,  and  when 
our  ships  were  blockaded  in  our 
chief  harbors.     But  the  priva 
teers  continued  their   exploits 
until  they  raised  British  rates 
of  insurance  on  trading  vessels 
to  a  very  high  percentage. 

305.  Victories  of  Perry  and 
Harrison.  —  Meanwhile  the  war 
was  not  popular  in  Great  Brit 
ain  or  in  New  England.  The 
South  and  West  still  favored  it, 
however,  and  Congress  helped 
Madison  by  allowing  him  to 
use  twenty  new  regiments  of 
regulars  in  place  of  volunteers. 
A  new  Secretary  of  War, 
General  Armstrong,  late  minister  to  France,  took  the  place  of 
Eustis,  who  was  unfitted  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  the 
position.  But  the  year  was  to  witness  few  signal  successes 
beyond  an  important  victory  on  Lake  Erie  that  led  to  the  retak 
ing  of  Detroit.  Captain  Oliver  H.  Perry2  had  a  flotilla  con- 

1  Her  brave  commander,  Captain  Lawrence,  was  killed.    The  contest  was 
practically  a  sea  duel  in  answer  to  a  challenge.     The  British  were  greatly 
elated  over  their  victory.    Lawrence  was  born  in  1781,  at  Burlington,  N.  J.    He 
was  engaged  in  the  Barbary  War,  having  command  of  the  Argus,  Vixen, 
and  Wasp ;  while  commanding  the  Hornet,  in  1813,  captured  the  British  brig 
Peacock,  with  a  loss  of  only  one  killed  and  two  wounded ;  while  commanding 
the  Chesapeake,  was  defeated  by  the  Shannon,  in  consequence  of  having  a 
new  and  undisciplined  crew;  was  mortally  wounded,  and  gave  as  his  last 
injunction,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

2  Born  in  Khode  Island,  1785 ;  died,  1819.    Entered  the  navy  in  1799  as  mid 
shipman  ;  was  in  the  war  against  Tripoli,  and  later  became  a  careful  student 
of  gunnery;  was  appointed  to  command  on  Lake  Erie,  1813;  showed  extraor 
dinary  energy  and  skill  in  building  a  fleet  and  in  collecting  and  drilling  his 
crews ;  got  together  nine  rude  vessels  and  captured  all  six  British  vessels,  in 


CAPTAIN  JAMES  LAWRENCE. 


234 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON,   1809-1817.        [§306 


structed  at  Presque  Isle  (now  Erie),  and  on  September  10  met 
and  defeated  the  British  flotilla  under  Captain  Barclay.-   The 

British  had  more  guns, 
but  the  Americans, 
after  Perry  had  been 
obliged  to  abandon  his 
flagship,  gained  a  com 
plete  victory  through 
their  courage  and  skill. 
Perry,  who  was  co 
operating  with  Harri 
son,  wrote  the  latter 
on  the  back  of  an  old 
letter,  "We  have  met 
the  enemy  and  they 
are  ours."  Harrison's 
army,  helped  by  the 
American  ships,  then 
passed  to  Detroit  and 
afterward  landed  in 
Canada,  where,  at  the 
battle  of  the  Thames 
River,  the  British,  under  Colonel  Proctor  and  their  Indian 
allies,  were  completely  routed  (October  5).  Tecuinseh  fell 
in  this  fight,  and  a  portion  of  Upper  Canada  passed  under 
American  control,  Michigan  having  been,  of  course,  regained.1 

REVERSES   AND   SUCCESSES. 

306.  American  Failures.  —  A  great  invasion  of  Canada  and  the 
seizure  of  Montreal  had  been  planned  for  1813,  but  it  was  partly 

the  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  September  10,  1813;   cooperated  in  Battle  of  the 
Thames,  and  served  in  defense  of  Baltimore. 

1  Several  months  previously  the  Americans  had  suffered  a  severe  loss  at 
the  river  Raisin,  seven  hundred  troops  under  General  Winchester  of  Tennessee 
having  been  overpowered  and  forced  to  surrender  by  Proctor  and  his  Indians, 
and  a  part  of  them  afterward  basely  burned  and  scalped  by  the  savages.  ID 
consequence  the  name  of  Proctor  was  held  in  great  abhorrence. 


CAPTAIN  OLIVER  H.  PERRY. 


§  308]  REVERSES   AND   SUCCESSES.  235 

abandoned,  General  Dearborn  seizing  only  a  few  places,  including 
York  (now  Toronto),  which  was  unnecessarily  burned.  Brown, 
Scott,  and  others  showed  that  American  soldiers  could  be  brave, 
but  the  campaign  was  on  the  whole  a  failure.  General  Wilkin 
son  then  succeeded  Dearborn,  but,  like  the  latter,  was  too  old  for 
the  work,  and  was  besides  at  loggerheads  with  Secretary  Ann- 
strong  and  with  his  second  in  command,  General  Wade  Hampton 
of  South  Carolina.  An  attack  on  Montreal  or  else  on  Kingston 
was  planned,  but  Armstrong  mixed  matters  up  by  assuming 
the  command.  Hampton  failed  to  cooperate  with  Wilkinson, 
who  had  had  a  hard  time  descending  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
the  latter  general  was  obliged  to  put  his  troops  into  winter 
quarters  with  nothing  accomplished.  Meanwhile  the  force  on 
the  weakened  Niagara  frontier  had  recrossed  the  river  after 
burning  the  town  of  Newark.  The  British  retaliated  in  kind 
and  with  their  Indian  allies  did  much  damage  on  the  American 
side  of  the  river. 

307.  Jackson  and  the  Indians.  —  While  these  events  had  been 
taking  place  in  the  North,  the  Southwest  had  not  been  quiet. 
British  and  Spanish  emissaries  were  stirring  up  the  Southern 
Indians  to  attack  the  Americans.     The  Creeks  had  also  been 
excited  by  Tecumseh,  who  used  a  comet  and  an  earthquake  to 
work  upon  their  superstitious  fears.     The  savages  massacred 
the  white  settlers  at  Fort  Mims,  Alabama,  on  August  30,  1813, 
slaying  or  roasting  to  death  four  hundred  persons.     Retaliation 
came  swiftly.      The   Tennesseean   volunteers   under   General 
Andrew  Jackson  invaded  the  Creek  country,  and  with  the  help 
of  troops  from  Mississippi  completely  defeated  the  Indians  at 
the  battle  of  the  Horseshoe,  or  Tohopeka  (March  27,  1814) . 

308.  Outlook  for  1814.  —  The  year  1814  opened  gloomily  in 
spite  of  Harrison's  and  Perry's  victories.    There  was  still  much 
improvement  needed  in  the  methods  of  raising  troops,  the  War 
Department  was  badly  managed,  and  the  finances  were  in  a 
wretched  condition.     Worst  of  all,  good  leaders  were  lacking. 
Besides,  the  British  navy  was  beginning  to  ravage  the  Atlantic 


236 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,    1800-1817.        [§  SOS 


MAP  OF  OPERATIONS  IN  1814. 


coast,  and  Napo 
leon's  power  being 
on  the  wane,  the 
strength  of  the 
United  Kingdom 
could  be  more 
fully  employed 
against  America. 
Russia,  however, 
had  proffered  her 
good  services  as 
a  mediator,  and 
Gal  latin  and 
James  A.  Bayard  were  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  to  join  John 
Quincy  Adams,  minister  at  that  court,  in  securing  this  powerful 
influence.  The  British  government  discouraged  the  Czar's 
offers,  but  as  it  had 
great  European  inter 
ests  to  settle,  it  was 
not  so  much  inclined 
to  fight  to  a  finish 
with  the  United 
States  as  it  might 
otherwise  have  been. 


309.  The  Canadian 
Campaign  of  1814.— 

Several  incompetent 
generals  having  been 
got  out  of  the  way 
for  one  cause  or  an 
other,  the  command 
on  the  Canadian 
frontier  fell  to  the 
capable  Brown.  A 
mistake  was  made 


COMMODORE  THOMAS  MACDONOUGH. 


§  310] 


REVERSES  AND   SUCCESSES. 


237 


with  regard  to  the  scene  of  operations,  but  when  the  fighting 
began  near  Niagara  Falls,  Brown  gave  a  good  account  of  him 
self.  At  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane  (July  5  and  25),  leaders 
like  Winfield  Scott  distinguished  themselves,  and  the  Ameri 
can  troops  showed  themselves  the  equals  of  British  regulars, 
and  won  honor,  if  no  substantial  military  gains.  Commodore 
Thomas  Macdonough1  also  repeated  Perry's  exploit  of  destroy 
ing  a  British  flotilla  —  this  time  off  Plattsburg  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain  (September  11).  The  result  of  all  this  fighting  was  little, 
—  each  side  practically  holding  its  ground, — but  the  Americans 
gained  prestige. 

310.  Capture  of  Washington.  —  Meanwhile  British  ships  rav 
aged  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  by  midsummer  a  large  fleet  under 
Admirals  Cockburn  and  Cochrane 
was  collected  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 
On  board  was  General  Ross  with 
several  thousand  troops.  Washing 
ton,  Virginia,  and  Maryland  were 
evidently  in  danger  and  great  efforts 
were  made  to  meet  the  invaders  — 
unfortunately  to  little  purpose,  on 
account  of  the  incapacity  of  Secre 
tary  Armstrong.  The  British  landed 
and  began  their  march  to  Washing 
ton,  easily  putting  the  undisciplined 
American  militia  to  flight  at  Bla- 
densburg,  Maryland  (August  24). 
Our  troops  evacuated  Washington, 
and  the  British  entered.  They 

retaliated  for  the  burning  of  York  by  setting  fire  to  the 
WThite  House,  the  unfinished  Capitol,  and  other  buildings. 
It  was  an  act  of  vandalism  that  cannot  be  defended;  but 

i  Born  in  Delaware,  1783;  died,  1825.  Served  against  Tripoli ;  gained  cele 
brated  victory  over  British  Commodore  Downie  at  Plattsburg,  1814,  the  Brit 
ish  having  16  vessels  and  92  guns,  the  Americans  14  vessels  and  86  guns,  the 
British  losing  300  men  besides  prisoners,  the  Americana  200. 


MAP  OF  OPERATIONS  AROUND 
WASHINGTON  IN  1814. 


238  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON,   1809-1817.        [§311 

fortunately  the  next  city  attacked  repulsed  the  invaders  coura 
geously.  This  was  Baltimore,  before  which  the  British  troops 
were  driven  back,  General  Ross  being  slain,  and  from  which 
the  British  fleet  retired  after  a  vain  bombardment  of  Fort 
McHenry  (September  12  and  13).  The  song  of  "  The  Star  Span 
gled  Banner,"  by  Francis  S.  Key,  commemorates  this  American 
victory. 

END   OF   THE   WAR. 

311.   The  Battle  of  New  Orleans.  —  It  soon  became  apparent 
that   the   attacks    on   Washington    and   Baltimore   had   been 

of  secondary  im 
portance,  and  that 
the  real  object  of 
the  British  fleet 
was  to  capture 
New  Orleans,  and 
snatch  the  newly 
acquired  Louisiana 
from  the  United 
States.  James  Mon 
roe,  who  had  suc 
ceeded  Armstrong 
as  Secretary  of  War, 
at  once  called  upon 
the  ablest  soldier 
in  the  Southwest, 
Andrew  Jackson.1 
The  latter  gathered 
his  forces,  and  al 
though  he  first  tried 
an  expedition  into 
ANDREW  JACKSON.  Florida  against  the 

British  and  Indians,  he  set  to  work  at  the  defenses  of  New 
Orleans  in  good  season.  The  large  British  fleet  effected  a 

1  Born  on  border  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  March  15, 1767 ;  died  at  the 
Hermitage,  near  Nashvflle,  Tennessee,  June  8, 1845.    Scantily  educated ;  became 


312] 


END  OF  THE   WAR. 


239 


MAP  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  OPERA 
TIONS,  1813-1815. 


landing  safely,  and  by  December  23  the  troops  were  only  a 
few  miles  from  the  city.  The  main  battle  occurred  on  January 
8,  1815,  and  the  backwoodsmen 
behind  their  works  destroyed 
the  flower  of  the  British  army 
who  had  the  hardihood  to  make 
a  front  attack.  Sir  Edward 
Pakenham,  the  British  com 
mander,  was  killed,  after  hav 
ing  been  for  days  outgeneralled 
by  Jackson;  and  at  least  two 
thousand  veterans,  many  of 
whom  had  followed  Welling 
ton  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 
lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the 
field.  The  American  loss,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  almost  incredibly  slight  —  about  twenty 
men  all  told. 

312.  The  Treaty  of  Ghent.  —  If  those  had  been  the  days  of 
the  telegraph,  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  would  not  have  been 
fought,  and  the  American  people  would  have  had  no  great 
land  victory  to  salve  the  pride  that  had  been  touched  to 
the  quick  by  the  capture  of  Washington,  Hull's  surrender, 
and  other  disgraceful  events  of  the  war.  On  December  24, 
1814,  American  and  British  commissioners  had  signed  a 
treaty  of  peace  at  Ghent.  Adams,  Gallatin,  and  Bayard, 
who  were  already  abroad,  had  been  joined  by  Henry  Clay 
and  Jonathan  Eussell ;  and  the  five  had  defended  American 
interests  very  well.  Gallatin  was  the  most  influential 
member  and  succeeded  in  curbing  the  zeal  of  Clay  and 

a  lawyer  in  Tennessee,  1788;  rose  in  his  profession  and  in  politics;  elected 
congressman  in  1796;  senator,  1797-1798;  judge  in  Supreme  Court  of  Tennes 
see,  1798-1804;  defeated  Indians  at  Tohopeka,  1814;  won  battle  of  New  Or 
leans,  1815;  put  down  Seminoles  in  Florida,  1818;  governor  of  Florida,  1821 ; 
elected  United  States  senator,  1823;  candidate  for  Presidency,  1824;  Presi 
dent,  1829-1837;  lived  in  retirement  at  the  Hermitage,  1837-1845. 


240  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,    1809-1817.        [§313 

Adams,  who  wished  to  press  matters  like  the  British 
right  to  navigate  the  Mississippi  and  the  fisheries  question, 
in  which  the  people  of  the  West  and  of  New  England  took 
a  great  interest.  Curiously  enough,  the  treaty  did  not  touch 
the  impressment  abuse,  or  the  right  of  searching  vessels, 
for  the  sake  of  which,  in  the  main,  the  war  had  been  waged. 
Still,  after  her  naval  victories,  America  was  not  likely  to 
suffer  in  the  future  from  such  abuses.  Each  side  restored 
the  territory  of  the  other  that  it  occupied,  and  both  felt  relieved 
that  the  anomalous  war  was  over. 

THE   DISAFFECTION   OF   NEW   ENGLAND. 

313.  Political  Events.  —  Political  events  in  Madison's  second 
administration  were  naturally  overshadowed   by  the   war   or 
else  connected  with  it.     As  we  have  seen,  the  finances  were 
badly  managed,  nor  were  the  affairs  of  the  War  Department 
on  a   better   footing.     Congress  was    scarcely   more   efficient, 
especially  when  its  Speaker,  Henry  Clay,  was  absent  with  the 
commissioners  at  Ghent.     But  the  disaffection  of  the  ISTew  Eng 
land  Federalists  was  the  most  serious  element  in  the  political 
problem.     With  the  waning  of   their  party  and  the  assured 
success  of  the   Democratic-Republicans,  they  naturally   grew 
more  rancorous.      They  coquetted  with  the  British  before  and 
during   the  war,  and  they  had  little   or  no   sympathy   with 
the  idea  that  the  United  States  was  a  nation.     In  the  debate 
in  1811  on  the  admission  of  Louisiana  as  a  state,  one  of  their 
leaders,  Josiah   Quincy   of  Massachusetts,   actually   declared 
that  the  passage  of  the  bill  would   be  a  virtual   dissolution 
of  the   Union,   and   that   it  would   be  the  duty   of   some   of 
the  states,  "  to  prepare  for   a   separation   amicably "  if  they 
could,  "  violently  if  they  must." 

314.  Reasons  for  New  England's  Attitude.  —  This   attitude 
seems  at  first   wholly    indefensible,  but   we   must   remember 
both  at  this  juncture  and  in  dealing  later  with  the  secession 
of  the  South,  that  the  idea   of  national  unison   was   one   of 


§315]  THE   DISAFFECTION   OF   NEW   ENGLAND.  241 

very  slow  growth,  and  that  threats  of  secession  or  of  violent 
resistance  to  the  Union  had  been  heard  already  from  Southern, 
Western,  and  Middle  states.  States  were  still  jealous  of  their 
prestige,  and  the  language  of  the  Constitution  lent  itself  to 
interpretations  that  reduced  the  power  of  the  nation  to  a 
minimum.  Besides,  New  England  had  suffered  greatly  from 
the  enforced  idleness  of  its  shipping  during  the  Embargo  and 
from  the  captures  made  by  the  British.  Consequently,  just 
as  men  are  always  inclined  to  do,  they  held  the  national 
government  responsible  for  matters  that  often  lay  beyond 
its  control.  Their  pro-British  sympathies,  although  certainly 
carried  beyond  the  bounds  of  decency,  may  be  partly 'ex 
tenuated  for  these  reasons.  When  they  went  farther,  and 
refused  to  put  the  state  militia  at  the  service  of  the  Union, 
they  took  a  dangerous  step,  but  one  not  entirely  indefensible 
on  strict  constructionist  grounds.  It  was  a  sure  precursor, 
however,  of  more  determined  and  less  defensible  opposition. 

315.  The  Hartford  Convention.  —  Success  in  state  elections 
gave  the  political  solidarity  that  was  needed,  and  the  increasing 
pressure  of  hostilities  in  the  year  1814  gave  the  needed  stimulus, 
for  effective  opposition  to  the  war  on  the  part  of  New  England. 
After  speeches  and  resolutions  as  strenuous  as  those  that 
nerved  Virginia  and  Kentucky  to  their  resistance  of  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  laws,  passed  half  a  generation  before  by  the  Fed 
eralists  themselves,  a  call  was  issued  by  Massachusetts  for  a 
convention  of  the  New  England  States.  This  met  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut;  on  December  15, 1814.  After  a  few  weeks  of  secret 
debate  its  members  issued  a  remarkable  report.  This  docu 
ment  asserted  the  doctrine  of  states'  rights  in  its  most 
naked  form,  suggested  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  looking  to  the  protection  of  the  interests  of 
minorities,  and  demanded  for  the  states  the  right  to  claim  the 
customs  duties  collected  within  their  own  borders.  This  last 
provision  would  have  been  of  itself  enough  to  destroy  the 
power  of  the  Union,  but  fortunately  there  was  no  need  even  to 


242  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,    1809-1817.        [§  316 

discuss  it.  The  commissioners  sent  to  Washington  to  propose 
it  to  Congress  found  that  peace  had  been  declared  and  that  their 
chief  ground  of  grievance  had  been  removed.  They  had,  there 
fore,  nothing  to  do  but  to  hasten  home  in  chagrin.  The  Fed 
eralist  party  did  not  survive  their  last  attack  upon  the  general 
government,  and  for  several  years  after  1815  there  was  practi 
cally  only  one  party  in  the  country.  This  fact  is  not  surpris 
ing  when  we  remember  that  accession  to  power  had  rendered 
the  leading  Republicans  as  desirous  of  maintaining  a  fairly 
strong  government  as  the  moderate  Federalists  were. 

CONSEQUENCES   OF  THE   WAR. 

316.  Some  Results  of  the  War.  —  With  the  decline  of  Federal 
ism  came  a  natural  increase  of  national  democratic  spirit 
and  a  lessening  of  the  dependence  on  either  Great  Britain 
or  France,  which,  as  we  have  before  seen,  had  characterized 
the  generation  that  grew  up  just  after  the  Revolution.  This 
was  a  clear  gain  from  the  war.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inter 
ests  of  the  sections  began  more  sharply  to  diverge.  The  North, 
during  the  trouble  with  England,  had  taken  to  manufacturing, 
and  now  began  to  demand  a  really  protective  tariff  for  its  "  in 
fant  industries."  This  policy,  though  encouraged  by  the  West 
for  the  sake  of  certain  products  like  hemp,  was  soon  seen  to 
bear  hard  on  the  South.  Previous  legislation  on  the  subject 
(§  266)  had  paved  the  way  for  an  effective  tariff,  and  the  influx 
of  British  goods  brought  into  the  country  after  the  close  of  the 
war  showed  that  the  newly  developed  industries,  especially 
that  of  cotton  manufacture,  which  had  increased  greatly  since 
1810,  would  find  it  hard  to  subsist  without  support.  So  the 
tariff  act  of  1816  was  passed,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
Daniel  Webster,  who  represented  New  England  shipping  inter 
ests,  and  of  John  Randolph,  who  represented  the  agricultural 
South  and  the  stricter  forms  of  Republicanism.  The  rate  (about 
twenty-five  per  cent),  placed  on  imported  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  was  found  practically  prohibitive  by  Southern  planters 
who  needed  coarse  clothes  for  their  slaves.  Thus  the  South- 


§  319J  CONSEQUENCES   OF  THE   WAR.  243 

erners  began  to  be  alienated  from  the  Democratic-Republican 
party,  although  not  a  few  of  them  helped  to  pass  the  act  of 
1816.  Among  these  was  John  C.  Calhoun,  whose  leanings 
toward  a  strong  government  were  still  pronounced. 

317.  The  National  Bank  and  Internal  Improvements.  —  The 
year  1816  also  saw  the  passage  of  another  financial  measure 
destined  to  cause  division  later.  This  was  the  reestablishment 
of  a  national  bank,  Hamilton's  bank  (§  266)  having  failed  to 
secure  a  second  charter  in  1811.  The  financial  burdens  of  the 
war  had  fallen  in  consequence  upon  the  state  banks,  which 
had  not  been  managed  well.  Hence  the  new  bank  scheme 
was  favored  even  by  cautious  Republicans  like  Madison.  Its 
establishment  for  twenty  years,  with  a  largely  increased  capi 
tal,  enabled  the  country  practically  to  resume  a  specie  basis  in 
less  than  a  year.1  A  fund  of  a  million  and  a  half  dollars  was 
paid  by  it  to  the  government  for  the  privileges  granted  by  the 
charter,  and  the  problem  how  to  employ  this  sum  to  the  best 
advantage  brought  forward  still  another  question  involving 
conflicting  interests. 

318!  The  Question  of  Internal  Improvements.  —  At  first  the 
individual  states  had  attended  to  their  internal  needs  and  had 
spent  considerable  sums,  especially  in  improving  their  water 
ways,  but  a  great  scheme  for  a  system  of  national  canals  had, 
before  the  war,  attracted  leading  Eepublicans.  Now  Calhoun 
proposed  to  use  for  a  similar  purpose  the  money  turned  in  by 
the  bank.  His  bill  passed  Congress,  but  Madison  vetoed  it,  on 
the  ground  that  although  such  improvements  were  desirable, 
a  specific  amendment  to  the  Constitution  was  needed  if  the 
general  government  was  to  undertake  them. 

319.  The  Succession  of  Monroe. — This  veto  of  Madison's, 
which  led  the  people  of  New  York,  in  default  of  national  aid,  to 
construct  their  own  Erie  Canal,  through  which  New  York  City 

1  The  bank  was  soon  mismanaged  and  was  with  great  difficulty  set  straight. 
The  numerous  state  hanks  continued  to  be  badly  managed  also,  and  the  years 
1817-1820  were  a  period  of  great  financial  stringency. 


244  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MADISON,   1809-1817.        [§319 

was  enabled  soon  to  outstrip  its  rivals,1  was  one  of  his  last 
official  acts  and  showed  that  he  was  still  faithful  to  the  politi 
cal  creed  of  Jefferson.  He  was  shortly  after  (March  4,  1817) 
.succeeded  by  his  Secretary  of  State.,  James  Monroe,  who  had 
proved  his  claim  to  the  succession  by  developing  the  national 
istic  ideas  that  had  made  Jefferson  and  Madison  safe  leaders 
in  a  very  critical  period.  Monroe  had  also  rendered  very  effi 
cient  service  as  temporary  Secretary  of  War,  and  had  endeared 
himself  to  the  people  of  every  section. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS:  same  in  the  main  as  for  Chapter  XV.,  with  the 
addition  of:  Henry  Adams,  History  of  the  United  States  (1800-1817,  0 
vols.)  ;  D.  C.  Oilman,  James  Monroe  ("American  Statesmen")  ;  W.  G. 
Sumner,  Andrew  Jackson  ("American  Statesmen")  ;  C.  Schurz,  Henry 
Clay  (2  vols.  "American  Statesmen")  ;  B.  J.  Lossing,  Field  Book  of  the 
War  of  1812;  C.  J.  Ingersoll,  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War; 
T.  Roosevelt,  Naval  War  of  1812;  J.  Fenimore  Cooper,  History  of  the 
Navy  of  the  United  States,  chaps,  xiii.-xlix. ;  E.  S.  Maclay,  History  of 
the  United  States  Navy,  Vol.  L,  305-577  ;  H.  C.  Adams,  Public  Debts, 
Part  II.,  chap.  i. ;  H.  C.  Lodge,  George  Cabot,  chaps,  x.-xiii. 

1  In  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  for  some  years  later.  New  York 
City  was  not  larger  than  Boston  or  Newport. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MONROE,  1817-1825. 

CHARACTER   OF  THE   PERIOD. 

320.  Monroe's  Counselors.  —  Monroe1  was  fortunate  not  only 
in  having  to  preside  over  a  united  people,  but  in  being  able  to 
secure  good  advisers.  For  Secretary  of  State  he  chose  John 
Quincy  Adams,  son  of  the  former  President  and  a  diplomatist 
of  tried  ability,  who  had  done  good  work  for  the  country 
as  Minister  to  Russia  and  commissioner  at  Ghent  (§  312). 
The  fact  that  the  son  of  the  great  Federalist  leader  should  be 
serving  in  the  Cabinet  of  a  Republican  President  was  a  signal 
proof  of  the  utter  demoralization  of  the  old  Federalist  party. 
In  the  Treasury,  Monroe  placed  William  H.  Crawford  of 
Georgia,  an  able  though  rather  intriguing  man  whose  subse 
quent  defeat  for  the  Presidency  and  withdrawal  from  national 
life  caused  regret  to  many  people.  Crawford  was  more  of  a 
politician  than  a  statesman,  and  his  success  showed  that  public 
leaders  were  undergoing  a  change  of  type.  The  Cabinet  was 
made  preponderatingly  Southern  by  the  appointment  of  Cal- 
houn  as  Secretary  of  War  and  of  William  Wirt  as  Attorney- 
General.  Its  strength,  however,  was  not  decreased,  for  both 
made  excellent  officials,  although  Wirt  was  more  an  advocate 
and  literary  man  than  a  statesman. 

1  Born,  1758 ;  died,  1831.  Left  William  and  Mary  College  in  1776  to  enter  the 
army  ;  fought  at  Trenton,  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth ;  mem 
ber  of  the  Virginia  Assembly  in  1782,  and  chosen  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress ;  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  Virginia  in  1788 ; 
United  States  senator,  1790-1794;  envoy  to  France,  1794-1796;  governor  of 
Virginia,  1799-1802;  went  a  second  time  as  envoy  to  France,  1802-1803;  Min 
ister  to  London,.! 803-1807 ;  Secretary  of  State,  1811-1817 ;  President,  1817-1825. 

245 


246 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MONROE,    1817-1825. 


[§321 


321.  The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  —  Monroe's  name  is  chiefly 
connected  to-day  with  matters  of  foreign  policy,  and  his  admin 
istrations        have 
been  termed  "The 
Era  of  Good  Feel 
ing,"  because  do 
mestic  affairs  wore 
on   the  whole   so 
quiet    an    aspect. 
Yet,  as  we  shall 
soon  see,  the   de 
bates  on  the  sub 
ject     of     slavery 
connected       with 
the   admission  of 
Missouri      as      a 
state  showed  that 
the  country  was  in 
reality    far    from 
united ;    and    the 
tariff     legislation 
of    1824    brought 
out  the  fact  still 

more  clearly  in  a  few  years.  Harmony  was  also  far  from  the 
minds  of  the  politicians,  however  united  politically  the  people 
might  appear  to  be.  Intrigues  for  the  succession  to  the  Presi 
dency  occupied  the  leading  statesmen,  and  in  the  combinations 
formed  by  them  a  careful  observer  might  have  perceived  the 
beginnings  of  a  division  into  two  parties  not  radically  dissimi 
lar  to  the  Federalists  and  Democratic-Republicans  of  the  pre 
ceding  generation. 

322.  The  Character   of  Monroe  as  President.  —  Monroe   has 
generally  been  regarded  as  the  weakest  of  the  early  Presidents, 
although  his  popularity  was  widespread.     This  view  is  plausi 
ble,  but  hardly  just.     He  certainly  behaved  with  great  dignity 


JAMES  MONROE. 


§324]  DIPLOMATIC   ACHIEVEMENTS.  247 

toward  the  intriguing  politicians  who  were  aiming  to  succeed 
him;  he  showed  discretion  in  adopting  from  his  advisers 
the  foreign  policy  that  bears  his  name ;  and  he  preserved  a 
strict  impartiality  and  adherence  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  in 
the  sectional  disputes  that  disturbed  his  administrations.  He 
was  not  a  commanding  man,  yet  he  deserves  to  be  remem 
bered  as  a  statesman  who  outgrew  early  rashness,  and  he  was 
fully  entitled  to  the  confidence  given  him  by  the  masses.  For 
his  second  term  (1821-1825),  indeed,  he  had  no  opposition. 
But  a  solitary  vote  was  cast  against  him,  in  order,  as  the  story 
goes,  that  Washington  should  be  the  only  President  unani 
mously  chosen. 

DIPLOMATIC   ACHIEVEMENTS. 

323.  The   Oregon    Region.  —  Two    boundary   disputes   with 
Great   Britain    and    Spain    early   occupied    the   attention   of 
Monroe   and  his   advisers.     The  first  was  mainly  concerned 
with  the  so-called  Oregon  region  beyond  the  Rockies,  drained 
by  the   Columbia  River,  which  the   United   States   claimed 
through  the  discovery  of  this  great  stream  by  Captain  Robert 
Gray  in  1792,  and  through  explorations  made  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  (§  287),  whom  Jefferson  had  sent  out  soon  after  the 
purchase   of    Louisiana   (1805).     In  this   region  the   British 
Hudson  Bay  Company  had,  however,  established  trading  posts, 
and  Monroe  found  that  the  best  thing  he  could  do  was  to  agree 
upon  the  forty-ninth  parallel  as  a  northern  boundary  as  far  as 
the  Kockies  and  upon  joint  occupancy  for  ten  years  of  the  dis 
puted  territory  beyond. 

324.  The  Acquisition   of  Florida.  —  Diplomacy    with    Spain 
was  more  definitely  successful.     Ever  since  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana  the  United  States  had  claimed  that  it  was  entitled 
to  the  strip  of  land  along  the  Gulf  known  as  West  Florida; 
but  Spain  had  refused  to  admit  this,  or  to  sell  the  territory,  in 
spite  of  persistent  offers  to  purchase  made  by  Jefferson.     In 
1810  Madison  took  possession  of  the  region  by  proclamation, 


248          ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MONROE,    1817-1825.  [§  325 

although  it  now  seems  certain  that  the  nation  had  better 
claims  on  Texas.  His  action,  and  the  invasion  of  Florida 
by  General  Andrew  Jackson  while  he  was  in  pursuit  of 
Indians  convinced  Spain,  however,  that  she  would  do  well  to 
sell  while  she  could  the  outlying  peninsula  of  East  Florida. 
Accordingly,  on  February  22,  1819,  Adams  negotiated  a  treaty 
by  which  the  Floridas  were  ceded,1  and  the  western  boundary 
of  Louisiana  was  settled  along  the  Sabine,  Eed,  and  Arkansas 
rivers  to  the  forty-second  parallel,  and  then  along  that  to 
the  Pacific.  This  treaty  strengthened  American  claims  to 
the  Oregon  region,  and  also  helped  to  settle  various  Indian 
and  slave  troubles  connected  with  East  Florida,  which  had 
served  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  runaway  negroes  and  other  bad 
characters.  So  much  disturbance  had  indeed  been  caused  by 
these  marauders  and  by  the  Seminole  Indians,  that  in  1818 
General  Andrew  Jackson  had  had  to  invade  Florida,  and  had 
actually  taken  two  towns  and  done  other  rather  high-handed 
acts  which  nearly  led  to  his  being  court-martialed.2  Spain  for 
two  years  delayed  ratifying  the  treaty,  but  finally  yielded  to 
the  inevitable. 

325.  The  Occasion  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  A  few  years  later 
relations  with  Spain  again  became  important.  Revolutionary 
principles  had  spread  in  the  Spanish  colonies  to  the  south,  and 
by  1822  Spain  had  lost  all  her  provinces  on  the  mainland.  But 
the  so-called  "  Holy  Alliance,"  formed  by  the  principal  sover 
eigns  of  continental  Europe  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  had  for  its 

1  The  United  States  in  return  agreed  to  assume  claims  against  Spain  held 
by  American  citizens  amounting  to  five  million  dollars. 

2  Among  other  things,  he  caused  two  British  subjects,  who  had  stirred  up 
the  Indians,  to  be  hanged,  and  he  got  into  quite  a  heated  controversy  with  the 
governor  of  Georgia.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  grossly  exceeded  his  instruc 
tions,  and  Calhoun  was  technically  right  when  he  proposed  the  court-martial. 
Monroe  and   Adams,  however,  knew  that  Jackson  had  acted  in  what  he 
believed  to  be  his  country's  interest,  and  they  shielded  him.    It  was  many 
years  before  Jackson  learned  who  it  was  that  had  proposed  to  court-martial 
him.    When  he  found  out,  a  breach  with  Calhoun  followed,  which  had,  as 
we  shall  see,  important  political  results. 


§  326]  DIPLOMATIC  ACHIEVEMENTS.  249 

chief  object  the  repression  of  revolutionary  doctrines  and  out 
breaks,  and  it  seemed  not  unlikely  that  a  concerted  effort  might 
be  made  by  Europe,  not  to  restore  her  colonies  to  Spain,  but  to 
distribute  them  among  the  great  powers.  This  was  naturally 
not  to  the  liking  of  a  people  who  had  themselves  revolted,  nor 
was  Great  Britain  anxious  to  allow  the  Alliance  to  gain  too 
much  headway.  Besides,  Russia  was  endeavoring  to  establish 
a  colony  on  the  North  Pacific,  and  she  and  other  powers  might 
easily  find  pretexts  to  seize  upon  territory  nearer  to  the  United 
States  —  perhaps  upon  California.  Hence,  while  overtures  for 
a  joint  protest,  made  by  the  British  statesman,  George  Canning, 
to  our  Minister  to  England,  Eichard  Rush,  were  declined,  the 
administration  soon  found  it  necessary  to  take  a.  stand  in  the 
matter. 

326.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. — Accordingly,  Monroe  sent  in  a 
message  to  Congress  in  December,  1823,  in  which  he  outlined 
the  policy  since  known  as  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine."  This  doc 
trine  was  none  the  less  important  from,  the  fact  that  it  was 
addressed  to  Congress  instead  of  to  the  European  powers.  Its 
gist  was  contained  in  two  assertions :  first,  that  the  American 
continents  were  not  henceforth  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for 
future  colonization  by  any  European  power ;  second,  that  efforts 
to  coerce  the  newly  established  governments  would  be  regarded 
as  proofs  of  "  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United 
States."  These  firm  utterances,  for  which  Monroe  was  indebted 
chiefly  to  John  Quincy  Adams,  but  also  to  the  policy  of  Wash 
ington  and  other  statesmen  and  to  the  advice  of  Jefferson, 
put  an  end  to  all  fear  of  European  aggression  and  rendered 
Russia  reasonable  with  regard  to  Alaska.  The  policy  thus  out 
lined  has  since  been  effectively  maintained,  and  it  may  now  be 
regarded  as  beyond  the  reach  of  party  action .  In  fact,  it  has  been 
extended  so  as  to  include  more  of  a  guardianship  over  other 
American  powers  than  was  contemplated  by  Monroe.  It  is 
plain  from  John  Quincy  Adams's  attitude  in  the  matter  of  the 
Panama  Congress  (§  337),  that  the  original  "Doctrine"  con- 


250          ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MONROE,   1817-1825.  [§327 

templated  that  each  power  should  guard  by  its  own  means 
against  European  aggressions. 

SLAVERY  COMES  TO  THE  FRONT. 

327.  The  Slavery  Question.  —  Turning  now  to  domestic  matters, 
we  find  that  during  Monroe's  two  terms,  Chief  Justice  Marshall 
delivered  many  of  his  most  celebrated  opinions  restraining  the 
powers  of  the  states  in  favor  of  the  general  government.     But 
there  was  one  subject  which  not  even  a  Marshall  could  have 
handled  effectively — this  was  slavery.     Slavery  had  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  first  Congress,  which  had  been  petitioned 
by  anti-slavery  societies  to  abate  the  evils  of  the  system.     In 
1793  an  act  for  restoring  slaves  who  had  fled  from  one  state 
to  another  was  passed.     The  slave  trade  had  been  prohibited 
in  1808,  as  soon  as  the  Constitution  allowed,  and  a  great  effort 
had  been  made  by  the  American  Colonization  Society  in  1816, 
to  begin  the  work  of  exporting  the  negroes  to  Africa ;  but  the 
invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  in  1793,  had  rendered  slavery  too 
profitable  to  the  far  Southern  states  to  make  it  probable  that 
they  would  peaceably  consent  to  the  abolishment  of  the  institu 
tion.     On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  people  who  thought 
slavery  morally  wrong  had  increased  in  the  North  and  North 
west,  and  the  way  in  which  new  slaveholding  and  non-slave- 
holding  states  had  been  admitted  into  the  Union  by  pairs,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Senate,  showed  that 
many  Southerners  were  alive  to  the  dangers  of  the  situation. 
Yet,  after  all,  so  great  was  the  general  desire  for  internal  har 
mony  that  most  persons  were  startled  when  the  debates  con 
cerning  the  admission  of  Missouri  revealed  the  fact  that  the 
existence  of  slavery  was  a  menace  to  the  Union. 

328.  The  Missouri  Controversy.  —  The  inevitable  struggle  be 
tween  slavery  and  freedom  was  precipitated  by  the  endeavor 
to  bring  in  Arkansas  as  a  territory  and  Missouri  as  a  state. 
Both  were  to  be  carved  -out  of  that  part  of  the  Louisiana  Ces 
sion  in  which  slavery  had  already  gained  a  footing.     Northern 


§330]  SLAVERY  COMES  TO  THE  FRONT.  251 

members  of  Congress  objected  to  the  spread  of  the  institution 
into  the  vast  territory  still  to  be  occupied,  while  Southern 
members  felt  that  any  limitation  of  slavery  was  an  infringe 
ment  on  their  property  rights.  If  a  man  could  carry  his  other 
chattels  when  he  removed  to  the  new  region,  why,  they  asked, 
could  he  not  carry  those  human  chattels  known  as  slaves. 
Finally  Arkansas  was  organized  without  mention  of  slavery, 
but  a  stand  was  made  on  Missouri.  James  Tallmadge,  a  New 
York  representative,  offered  an  amendment  to  the  act  admitting 
Missouri,  to  the  effect  that  further  introduction  of  slaves  into 
the  proposed  state  should  be  prohibited,  and  that  the  children 
of  slaves  born  after  the  state's  admission  to  the  Union  should 
be  considered  free  at  the  age  of  twenty-five.  The  Senate  refus 
ing  to  concur,  the  matter  went  over. 

329.  The  First  Missouri  Compromise.  —  The  close  of  the  year 
1819  saw  a  renewal  of  the  contest  in  the  new  Congress,  which 
assembled  after  the  matter  had  been  much  discussed  in  state 
legislatures  and  throughout   the  country.     Alabama   was   ad 
mitted  to  balance  Illinois ;  then  bills  passed  the  House  admitting 
Maine 1  and  Missouri,  but  with  the  anti-slavery  proviso  made 
applicable  to  the  latter.     The  Senate  would  admit  Maine  only 
if  Missouri  were  admitted  as  a  slave  state.     The  House  refused 
,to  yield,  but  finally  a  compromise  was  effected.     A  line  was 
drawn  across  the  Louisiana  Territory  at  36°  30',  i.e.  along  the 
northern  boundary  of  Arkansas,  and  it  was  agreed  that  north 
of  this  line  slavery  should  not  exist  save  in  Missouri.     This 
famous  arrangement,  which  went  into  effect  in  March,  1820, 
became  known  as  the  "Missouri  Compromise"  and  was  effective 
until  new  territory  was  added  to  the  Union  as  a  result  of  the 
Mexican  War. 

330.  The  Second  Missouri  Compromise.  —  Missouri  was  not, 
indeed,  admitted  until  1821,  on  account  of  a  provision  in  its 
Constitution   against  allowing  free   colored  men   to   enter  its 

1  Maine  up  to  this  time  had  been  a  district  of  Massachusetts. 


252          ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MONROE,    1817-1825.  [§331 


borders.     This   obstacle   was   overcome   by   the   address   and 

dexterity  of  Henry  Clay ]  who,  as  a  Virginian  by  birth  and  a  Ken- 

tuckian  by  residence, 
was  in  every  way 
admirably  suited  to 
act  as  mediator  be 
tween  the  two  sec 
tions.  He  did  not 
like  slavery,  and 
had  been  president 
of  the  Colonization 
Society  ;  but  he  un 
derstood  how  thor 
oughly  in  earnest 
the  Southern  men 
were  to  defend  the 
institution.  He  used 
all  the  tact  and 
personal  charm  for 
which  he  was  con 
spicuous  among  his 
contemporaries,  and 
succeeded  in  mak 
ing  the  people  of 

Missouri  agree  not  to  deprive  citizens  of  other  states  of  their 

rights. 

331.  General  View  of  the  Compromises.  —  The  Second  Com 
promise  was  distinctly  ambiguous  and  meant  little ;  the  Eirst 
was  a  sacrifice  of  principle  which,  however,  was  regarded  as 
necessary  at  the  time.  Both  sides  were  in  earnest,  and  the 

iBorn  in  Virginia,  1777;  died,  1852.  Moved  to  Kentucky,  1797;  in  rapid 
succession  was  member  of  the  Kentucky  legislature,  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  and  the  United  States  Senate;  Speaker  of  the  House,  1811-1814; 
leader  of  the  war  party  against  Great  Britain,  and  champion  of  internal  im 
provements;  one  of  the  envoys  to  Ghent,  1814;  Speaker  of  House,  1815-1821, 
also  from  1823-1825;  ardently  advocated  the  tariff  of  1824;  Secretary  of  State, 


HENRY  CLAY  (1<S,'}2). 


331] 


SLAVERY   COMES  TO   THE   FRONT. 


253 


extreme  adherents  of  each  stood  out  to  the  end  for  their  respec 

tive  principles.     On  the  whole,  the  responsibility  for  the  set 

tlement  rested  largely  on  the 

moderate  Southerners  and  on 

their  Northern  and  Western 

sympathizers,  who  were  very 

influential  in  some  states,  — 

for  example,  in  Illinois.    Few 

men  saw  with  John  Randolph1 

that   the   day   of   settlement 

was  only  postponed.  Whether 

it  would  have  been  best  to 

fight   the  question   out  then 

and  there,  will   always  be  a 

mooted   point.      Compromise 

on    matters    of    principle    is 

incapable  of  satisfying  men's 

consciences  for  long.;    but  it 

is  equally  true  that  principles 

cannot  be  uncompromisingly 

.    ,    .       n      .,, 
maintained  with  success  at  all 

times  and  seasons.  Fighting  unyieldingly  for  them  at  the 
wrong  time  may  postpone  their  final  triumph  indefinitely. 
Hence  it  was,  perhaps,  best  that  the  forces  of  freedom  were 
given  time  to  grow  strong  and  that  the  Union  was  not  haz 
arded  at  so  early  a  juncture. 

1825-1829;  senator  from  Kentucky,  1832-1842  and  1849-1852;  candidate  for 
President,  1824,  1831,  and  1844  ;  was  the  great  representative  of  the  National 
Whig  party  of  his  time,  and  the  most  powerful  advocate  of  what  was  called 
the  American  System  of  Protection. 

1  Born  in  Virginia,  1773;  died,  1833.  Studied  at  Princeton  and  Columbia; 
entered  House  of  Representatives  in  1799  ;  soon  became  a  leader  among  the 
Democratic-Republicans  ;  was  a  champion  of  strict  construction  of  the  Consti 
tution,  and  won  great  distinction  as  the  most  satirical  speaker  ever  heard  in 
Congress;  was  United  States  senator,  1825  to  1827,  when  he  invented  the  term, 
"doughface,"  as  applied  to  Northern  sympathizers  with  slavery;  was  sent 
as  Minister  to  Russia  by  Jackson  in  1830,  but  he  disliked  the  climate  and 
returned  ;  reflected  to  Congress,  1832.  Emancipated  his  slaves  by  his  will. 


JOHN  RANDOLPH. 


254          ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   MONROE,    1817-1825.  [§332 

FACTIONAL   POLITICS. 

332.  Political  Factions  and  the  Tariff  of  1824. —  The  fight 
over  Missouri  was  not  the  only  indication  that  the  Era  of  Good 
Feeling  was  to  be  of  short  duration.  Politics  throughout  the 
country  were  becoming  personal  in  character  and  therefore 
more  or  less  petty.  The  influence  of  the  Revolutionary  states 
men  was  waning,  in  spite  of  the  prestige  of  survivors  like  John 
Adams  and  Jefferson.  The  right  to  vote  no  longer  depended 
in  the  main  upon  the  possession  of  property,  as  had  been  the 
case  when  the  Union  was  formed,  but  was  being  extended  to  all 
male  citizens  of  the  age  of  twenty-one.  This  extension  of  the 
franchise  was  largely  due  to  the  example  set  by  the  new  West 
ern  states,  which  were  naturally  far  more  democratic  than  the 
older  commonwealths.  As  a  result,  political  tricksters  were  fast 
controlling  the  vote  of  the  masses.  Offices  were  being  given  for 
political  services,  and  congressional  caucuses  and  state  cliques 
were  dictating  nominations.  The  nominating  convention,  with 
its  opportunities  for  "  wire-pulling  "  and  its  aptitude  for  select 
ing  compromise  candidates,  was  also  coming  into  vogue  in  state 
politics,  and  political  clubs,  like  the  "  Tammany  Society"  of 
New  York,  were  beginning  their  sinister  work.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  is  no  wonder  that,  as  the  tariff  of  1816  was 
not  sufficient  for  their  purposes,  the  manufacturers  of  the 
Middle  states  and  New  England  should  have  endeavored  to 
obtain  legislation  of  a  more  decidedly  protective  character. 
Aided  by  the  West,  which  believed  with  Clay  in  creating 
"a  home  market"  and  thus  adhering  to  a  truly  "American 
policy,"  they  succeeded,  in  1824,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
South,  in  passing  a  tariff  act  with  higher  duties,  especially 
on  wool,  woolens,  cotton  goods,  iron,  and  hemp.  They  had 
nearly  succeeded  in  1820  in  carrying  their  point.  Now,  on 
the  eve  of  an  election,  the  politicians  who  were  supporting  the 
various  Presidential  candidates  were  afraid  to  risk  votes  by 
opposing  such  strong  financial  interests,  and  three  sections1  were 

1  New  England  was  not  yet  unanimous  in  supporting  protection,  but  soon 
became  so. 


333] 


FACTIONAL  POLITICS. 


255 


in  any  case  stronger  than  one.  But  the  passage  of  such  an  act 
under  such  circumstances  was  sure  to  give  trouble,  for  although 
in  theory  designed  for  the  good  of  the  nation,  protection  really 
involved  financial  loss  to  one  section,  the  South,  which,  as  a 
whole,  did  not  yet  realize  the  fact,  but  was  beginning  to  do  so. 

333.  The  Presidential  Election  of  1824. —  Meanwhile,  the 
choice  of  Monroe's  successor  seemed  more  important  than 
the  tariff.  Each  of  the 
candidates  was  a  Demo 
cratic-Republican,  a  fact 
which  perhaps  made  their 
struggle  all  the  fiercer. 
John  Quincy  Adams,1  as 
Secretary  of  State,  had 
precedents  in  his  favor,  — 
Jefferson,  Madison,  and 
Monroe  having  served  in 
that  capacity,  —  and  he 
had  also  the  support  of 
New  England;  but  his 
lack  of  magnetism  counted 
greatly  against  him.  Cal- 
houn,  who  was  still  strong 
in  the  North  on  account 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS. 


of  his  nationalistic  views, 
which,  however,   he   was 
fast  abandoning,  soon  contented  himself  with  receiving  assur 
ance  of  the  Vice  Presidency.     Crawford,  whose  health  was  very 

1  Born  in  1767 ;  .died,  1848.  Taken  to  the  University  of  Leyden  early  in  life, 
and  at  fourteen  was  secretary  to  the  Minister  to  Kussia;  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1788;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1791;  Minister  to  Holland,  1794-1797;  to 
Prussia,  1797-1801;  United  States  senator,  1803-1808;  Minister  to  Russia, 
1809-1814;  Minister  to  England,  1814-1817;  Secretary  of  State,  1817-1825; 
elected  President  by  House  of  Representatives  in  1825;  reentered  House  of 
Representatives,  1831,  where  he  continued  till  his  death,  a  model  legislator  in 
every  department  of  public  business.  His  diary,  twelve  volumes  of  which 
have  been  published,  is  a  mine  of  valuable  information. 


256          ADMINISTRATIONS  OF   MONROE,    1817-1825.  [§  334 

poor  at  the  time,  was  nominated  by  the  regular  party  caucus  of 
congressmen ;  but  as  caucus  nominations  had  grown  in  disfavor, 
this  fact  hurt  his  chances.  Clay  had  the  support  of  the  West, 
and  was  popular  elsewhere.  Andrew  Jackson,  then  a  senator, 
was  popular  on  account  of  his  military  record,  represented  the 
democratic  masses  more  nearly  than  any  other  candidate,  and 
had  astute  political  managers.  At  the  election  of  1824,  Jackson 
led  with  ninety-nine  electoral  votes;  Adams  had  eighty -four; 
Crawford,  forty-one;  and  Clay,  thirty-seven.  The  election  thus 
went  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  had  to  choose 
from  the  three  highest  names. 

334.  Choice  of  John  Quincy  Adams. —  In  February,  1825,  the 
House,  voting  by  states,  chose  Adams,  for  whom,  as  the  best 
fitted  of  the  candidates,  Clay  had  used  his  influence.  As  Adams 
subsequently  made  Clay  Secretary  of  State,  a  corrupt  bargain 
between  them  was  charged,  but  upon  no  real  grounds.  Some 
of  Jackson's  friends  claimed  that,  as  he  had  received  most 
votes,  the  House  should  have  respected  the  popular  will  and 
chosen  him ;  yet  this  was  equivalent  to  maintaining  that  the 
Constitution,  which  had  left  the  House  of  Representatives  full 
liberty  in  the  matter,  had  not  been  properly  framed.  But, 
although  there  was  no  good  reason  for  the  discontent  expressed, 
it  remained  clear  that  the  Era  of  Good  Feeling  was  over,  and 
that  Adams  would  find  little  comfort  in  the  high  office  he  had 
attained.1 

REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XVI.  (see  also  Chapter  XV.), 
with  the  addition  of:  H.  C.  Lodge,  Daniel  Webster  ("American  States 
men");  H.  Von  Hoist,  John  C.  Calhoun  ("American  Statesmen"); 
J.  T.  Morse,  John  Quincy  Adams  ("American  Statesmen");  T.  H. 
Benton,  Thirty  Years  View  (2  vols.).  See  also  the  writings  of  Monroe 
and  Clay,  and  of  the  three  statesmen  named  above,  especially  J.  Q. 
Adams's  Diary,  as  well  as  A.  S.  Bolles's,  Financial  History  of  the  United 
States;  F.  W.  Taussig's,  Tariff  History  of  the  United  States. 

i  It  should  be  noted  that  in  1824  Lafayette  made  a  triumphal  tour  of  the 
country  as  the  guest  of  the  nation.  The  reception  given  him  is  said  to  have 
made  even  the  Presidential  campaign  seem  of  secondary  interest. 


125 


105  Longitude  100       West 


To  follow  p.  2.56. 


UNITED   STATES 
1825-1830 


PART   IV. 

SPREAD  OF  DEMOCRACY  AND  EXTENSION 
OF  TERRITORY,  1825-1850. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   JOHN   QUINCY    ADAMS, 
1825-1829. 

FAILURES  OF   THE   ADMINISTRATION. 

335.  Character  of  Adams's  Administration. — Adams  was  a 
statesman  of  great  ability  and  experience  and  of  high  integrity, 
but  he  represented  ideas  of  strong  government  not  pleasing 
to  the  masses.  He  seemed  to  be  a  Federalist  veneered  with 
Democracy.  He  did  not  have  the  faculty  of  winning  and 
holding  friends.  He  could  not  be  easy  in  his  manners,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  his  dignity  lacked  grace.  Besides,  his 
election  had  been  disputed,  his  opponents  were  factious,  and 
events  favored  him  almost  as  little  as  they  had  done  his 
father.  The  strongest  man  in  his  Cabinet,  Clay,  was  really  a 
source  of  weakness  to  him,  for  Jackson's  friends  continued  to 
pretend  to  believe  in  the  corrupt  bargain.1  Adams's  adminis 
tration  was,  therefore,  on  the  whole,  a  failure. 

1  John  Randolph,  probably  the  most  venomously  personal  debater  Congress 
has  ever  had  among  its  members,  gave  immortality  to  the  charge  against 
Adams  and  Clay  by  likening  the  pair  to  two  unsavory  characters  in  Fielding's 
novel,  Tom  Jones-  He  referred  to  the  "  coalition  of  Blifil  and  Black  George, 

257 


258        ADMINISTRATION   OF  J.  Q.  ADAMS,   1825-1829.       [§  336 

336.  Foreign  Affairs.  —  Even  in  foreign  affairs,  where,  being 
a  trained  diplomatist,  he  had  been  previously  successful,  things 
went  against  Adams.     He  secured  a  number  of  good  commer 
cial  treaties,  but  lost  the  important  trade  with  the  British  West 
Indian  ports  through  the  failure  to  comply  in  time  with  certain 
demands  of  Great  Britain.     Perhaps  if  he  had  used  the  tact 
afterward  displayed  by  Jackson,  he  would  have  secured  the 
trade  without  trouble.     But,  as  it  was,  the  fault  lay  mainly 
with  Congress,  which  took  delight  in  humiliating  the  Presi 
dent. 

337.  The  Panama  Congress.  —  Adams  fared  as  badly  or  worse 
when  he  indorsed  the  scheme  of  General  Bolivar,  the  South 
American  patriot  hero,  for  holding  at  Panama  a  convention,  or 
congress,  of  all  the  American  republics.     Both  Adams  and  Clay, 
the  latter  of  whom  had  long  taken  interest  in  South  American 
affairs,  believed  that  through  such  a  congress  the  influence  of 
the  United  States  would  be  extended  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
be  more  firmly  established.     But  although  commissioners  were 
finally  sent  to  Panama,  they  arrived  too  late  to  participate  in 
the  conference,  owing  to  the  protracted  debates  in  Congress  on 
the  propriety  of  sending  them.     Although  Adams's  opponents 
would  under  any  circumstances  have  delighted  to  harass  him, 
these  debates  were  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  Hayti,  a  republic 
of  revolted  negro  slaves,  was  to  be  represented  at  Panama. 
Southern  congressmen  disliked  the  social  and  political  recog 
nition  involved,  and  feared  that  the  subject  of  slavery  might 
come  up  for  discussion.     As  a  matter  of  course,  Adams's  op 
ponents  made  him  bear  the  brunt  of  the  fiasco. 

338.  Internal  Improvements.  —  In  domestic  affairs  the  Presi 
dent's  policy  was  still  more  unsuccessful.     In  his  tactless  way 

a  combination,  unheard  of  until  now,  of  the  Puritan  and  the  blackleg."  The 
taunt  against  Clay  expressed  in  the  last  word  was  based  upon  that  states 
man's  rather  loose  habits,  which  were  only  too  characteristic  of  the  public 
men  of  the  period.  The  fact  that  Randolph  and  Clay  fought  a  bloodless  duel 
over  this  matter,  reminds  us  of  the  extent  to  which  manners  have  changed 
within  three  quarters  of  a  century. 


§  339]  FAILURES   OF  THE   ADMINISTRATION.  259 

he  favored  internal  improvements  to  an  extent  unwarranted  at 
the  time.  He  knew  of  the  general  prejudice  against  the  gov 
ernment's  undertaking  what  the  states  preferred  to  do  them 
selves,  and  he  should  have  known  also  that  the  vetoes  of  his 
two  predecessors  had  carried  great  weight.  Besides,  it  was 
almost  amusing  to  counsel  the  American  people,  as  he  did,  to 
build  observatories,  when  they  were  more  interested  in  finances, 
public  and  private,  than  in  astronomy.  Some  money  had  indeed 
been  spent  on  improvements,  especially  upon  the  Cumberland 
Road,  a  highway  running  through  Maryland,  West  Virginia, 
and  Ohio,  and  designed  to  connect  East  and  West.  More  money 
was  spent  during  Adams's  term;  but  much  opposition  was 
aroused,  particularly  in  the  South,  even  Calhoun  being  now 
dubious  of  the  constitutionality  of  such  expenditure  of  the 
public  funds. 

339.  Georgia  and  the  Indians.  —  Still  more  humiliating  than 
anything  described  yet  was  Adams's  failure  to  protect  from 
the  aggressions  of  the  governor  and  legislature  of  Georgia,  the 
Creeks  and  Cherokees,  who  lived  in  a  half-civilized  condition 
within  the  boundaries  of  that  state.  Both  tribes  had  treaty 
relations  with  the  United  States,  and  neither  owed  allegiance 
to  Georgia.  Yet  the  state  proceeded  to  survey  the  lands  of  the 
Creeks  under  a  treaty  of  1825,  before  the  general  government 
had  had  time  to  investigate  the  matter.  When  Adams  inter 
fered,  feeling  that  the  Indians  were  being  imposed  upon,  Gov 
ernor  Troup  used  imprudent  language,  which  he  reiterated  in 
1827  under  similar  circumstances.  On  the  latter  occasion  he 
actually  called  out  state  militia  to  meet  the  United  States 
troops.  This  was  pushing  the  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  to 
a  very  dangerous  extreme.  As  the  President  got  little  support 
from  Congress,  he  had  to  brook  the  insult  in  spite  of  a  splen 
did  speech  in  his  behalf  by  Daniel  Webster.  A  few  years  later, 
as  we  shall  soon  see,  another  state,  South  Carolina,  stood  out 
against  another  President,  Andrew  Jackson,  with  far  less  im 
punity,  Jackson  being  a  more  commanding  man  than  Adams, 


260         ADMINISTRATION  OF  J.  Q.  ADAMS,   1825-1829.      [§  340 

and  his  opponents  less  determined.  It  must  be  remembered, 
too,  that  although  the  rash  conduct  of  Georgia's  legislature  and 
governor  deserves  partial  censure,  the  people  of  the  state  were 
acting  but  naturally,  when  they  endeavored  to  supplant  by 
white  settlers  the  Indians  within  their  borders.  An  Indian 
state  within  a  commonwealth  was  not  to  be  tolerated,  and  the 
United  States  had  in  1802  promised  to  get  the  Indians  away 
as  soon  as  possible. 

THE   TARIFF   QUESTION. 

340.  The  Tariff  of  1828.  —  Thus  far  Adams's  conduct  had 
been  above  reproach,  however  much  he  had  failed  in  carrying 
out  his  various  policies.  It  is  less  easy  to  defend  his  course  in 
not  vetoing  the  tariff  bill  of  1828  —  known  in  history  as  the 
"Tariff  of  Abominations."  It  is  natural  that  men  who  have 
once  tasted  the  bounty  of  government  should  desire  more  of  it ; 
hence  we  are  not  surprised  at  finding  the  manufacturers  of  the 
country  soon  demanding  more  protection.  The  most  clamorous 
advocates  of  higher  duties  were  the  growers  and  manufacturers 
of  wool,  since  English  woolens  were  again  being  sold  in  Ameri 
can  markets.  A  bill  for  the  aid  of  the  manufacturers  of 
woolens  was  defeated  in  1827  only  by  the  vote  of  Vice  Presi 
dent  Calhoun,  who  again  showed  the  growth  of  his  anti-protec 
tion  views.  Then  followed  a  convention  of  protectionists  at 
Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  which  advocated  very  high  duties 
(1827).  The  adherents  of  Jackson,  whose  candidacy  was  kept 
shrewdly  before  the  public  throughout  Adams's  term,  now  con 
ceived  a  very  subtle  plan  for  helping  their  hero  and  still  further 
discrediting  Adams.  They  proposed  to  levy  exorbitant  duties 
on  raw  products, — a  policy  which  would  secure  the  favor  of  the 
Western  farmers  and  sheep-raisers,  but  would  outrage  the  IsTew 
England  manufacturers.  The  latter,  it  was  thought,  would 
then  join  the  Southerners  in  defeating  the  bill  and  would  owe 
no  gratitude  to  Adams.  Jackson  would  in  consequence  keep 
his  Southern  votes,  yet  would  also  seem  friendly  to  the  West 
and  to  the  protectionists  generally.  The  schemes  of  Jackson's 


§342]  THE   TARIFF   QUESTION.  261 

partisans  to  increase  his  chances  of  election  were  unnecessary, 
since  he  was  already  a  sufficiently  popular  candidate.  The  bill 
actually  passed  laid  high  duties  which  protected  both  growers 
of  raw  products1  and  manufacturers.  Although  the  gains  of 
the  manufacturers  were  thus  neutralized,  they  thought  it  best 
to  take  their  chances  under  the  increased  duties.  Accordingly 
the  congressmen  who  represented  them  voted  for  the  bill,  and 
Adams  signed  it  May  24,  1828.  The  South  was  greatly  out 
raged  in  consequence,  although  some  of  her  own  leaders  had 
with  sinister  purpose  forced  the  rates  up. 

341.  South  Carolina's  Discontent.  —  South  Carolina  was  espe 
cially  excited.     Her  feelings  and  ideas  were  well  expressed  in 
a    document  —  the    celebrated   "Exposition    and   Protest" 
drawn  up  by  Calhoun.     In  this  manifesto  the  Vice  President, 
following   the   lead   of  his  predecessor  Jefferson,  pushed  the 
doctrine  of  state  protest,  as  outlined  in  the  Kentucky  and  Vir 
ginia  Resolutions,  to  the  extreme  of  a  separate  state  veto  and 
nullification  of  an  obnoxious  law  (§  279).     He  went  farther  than 
Jefferson,  however,  his  views  being  derived  partly  from  his  own 
philosophical  speculations,  partly  from  the  teachings  of  John 
Randolph  and  of  other  Southern  leaders.     The  consequences  of 
the  adoption  of  his  theory  were  plainly  very  dangerous,  but 
matters  stood  still  for  a  while,  since  all  parties  were  waiting  to 
see  what  stand  the  new  administration  to  be  inaugurated  in 
1829  would  take  with  regard  to  the  tariff. 

342.  Election  of  1828.  —  As  might  have  been  foreseen,  Adams 
was  defeated  in  the  election  of  1828.     He  had  come  nearer 
success  than  was  expected ;    for  the  votes  of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  would  have  turned  the  scale.     But  his  oppo 
nents,  with   their   scandalous    stories,  their  unnecessary  con 
gressional  investigations,  their  general  unscrupulousness,  had 
been  too  much  for  him.     Clay  had  not  been  efficient  in  directing 
the  campaign  ;  while  Jackson  had  secured  in  his  favor  what  he 
had  not  had  in  the  campaign  of  1824,  —  the  support  of  the 

1  For  example,  the  duty  on  hemp  was  raised  from  $35  to  $60  per  ton. 


262        ADMINISTRATION  OF  J.  Q.  ADAMS,   1825-1829.       [§  342 

skillful  group  of  New  York  politicians  known  as  the  "  Albany 
Regency,"  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  astute  Martin  Van 
Buren.  Besides,  Jackson's  views  on  disputed  questions  were 
a  mystery,  so  that  he  could  be  claimed  by  any  faction,  while  his 
sympathies  and  qualities  were  plainly  democratic  and  thus 
acceptable  to  the  masses.  On  the  other  hand,  Adams's  views 
were  so  pronounced  that  he  was  sure  to  alienate  votes,  and  his 
sympathies  and  qualities  were  plainly  aristocratic.1  Finally, 
Jackson  was  a  typical  Westerner,  and  the  West  then  held  the 
balance  of  power.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  in  the 
popular  vote  he  distanced  his  rival. 


REFERENCES. — GENERAL  WORKS  :  W.  Macdonald,  Select  Documents 
of  United  States  History,  1776-1781 ;  J.  Schouler,  History  of  the  United 
States  (6  vols.)  ;  J.  Winsor,  The  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America  (8  vols. )  ;  G.  Tucker,  The  History  of  the  United  States  (4  vols., 
Winsor  and  Tucker  extend  to  1840)  ;  H.  Von  Hoist,  The  Constitutional 
History  of  the  United  States  (8  vols.)  ;  Bryant  and  Gay,  A  Popular  His 
tory  of  the  United  States  (4  vols.)  ;  T.  H.  Benton,  Thirty  Years'1  View 
(2  vols.);  E.  Ingle,  Southern  Side  Lights;  Woodrow  Wilson,  Division 
and  Reunion  ("  Epochs  of  American  History  "). 

SPECIAL,  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XVII. 

1  In  these  respects  he  much  resembles  the  Ex-President,  his  father,  who, 
curiously  and  appropriately  enough,  died  within  a  few  hours  of  his  old  friend 
and  rival,  Jefferson,  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  day  they  had  helped  to 
render  famous,  July  4,  1826. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

THE  JACKSONIAN   EPOCH,  1829-1837. 

POLITICAL   CONDITIONS. 

343.  The  Meaning  of  Jackson's  Election.  —  Andrew  Jackson 
was  the  first  man  of  plain  birth  and  breeding  to  sit  in  the  White 
House.  Born  on  the  border  between  the  two  Carolinas,  he  had 
early  made  his  way  to  Tennessee  and  there  had  risen  to  leader 
ship  through  his  strength  of  character  and  his  possession  of  all 
the  manly  qualities  most  held  in  repute  by  the  pioneer  settlers. 
The  democratic  voters  gave  him  whatever  political  or  military 
offices  he  wanted,  and  were  thoroughly  satisfied  with  the  effec 
tive  way  he  discharged  his  duties.  When  Indians  or  British 
threatened  the  South  or  Southwest,  he  was  the  man  to  whom 
the  general  government  had  to  turn,  and  his  constant  success 
made  him  a  popular  hero  throughout  the  Union.  Thus,  in 
reputation  as  well  as  in  character,  he  became  more  than  a  mere 
Tennesseean ;  he  became  a  representative  American.  He  was 
not  a  trained  statesman,  and  his  opinions  on  many  impor 
tant  subjects  were  little  more  than  prejudices.  But  he  was 
thoroughly  honest  and  fearless  and  precisely  the  sort  of  leader 
fitted  to  enlist  the  sympathy  and  admiration  of  the  democracy. 
It  is  true  that  he  could  have  done  little  without  his  shrewd 
political  friends,  and  that  he  was  likely  to  be  partly  their  tool. 
It  is  true,  also,  that  with  all  the  virtues  of  the  backwoodsmen, 
he  had  some  of  their  vices,  notably  that  of  vindictiveness. 
But  when  all  allowances  are  made,  he  was  a  great  man,  thor 
oughly  representative  of  the  new  electorate. 

263 


264  THE   JACKSONIAN   EPOCH,   1829-1837.  [§  344 

344.  The  New  Democracy.  —  The  new  type  of  politicians 
controlling  the  country  was  but  an  index  of  a  new  electorate. 
In  the  East  the  downfall  of  the  Federalists  and  the  constant 
extensions  of  the  suffrage  had  created  a  party  of  "  the  people/' 
which  would  have  had  little  chance  of  making  its  wishes  law 
under  the  regime  of  Washington,  or  even  of  Jefferson.  But 
it  hailed  in  Jackson  a  leader  after  its  own  heart.  In  the 
West,  where  aristocracy  was  practically  unknown,  no  other 
party  had  ever  existed,  and  the  young  communities  had  long 
chafed  under  the  conservative  methods  of  the  East,  which  ad 
vanced  one  Secretary  of  State  after  another  to  the  Presidential 
chair.  In  the  South  the  planters  still  controlled  affairs,  but 
they  treated  the  democracy  with  consideration,  and  directed, 
rather  than  thwarted,  its  energies.  Of  course,  in  developing 
this  new  political  force,  the  teachings  of  Jefferson  and  his 
school  had  had  much  influence;  but  the  growth  and  spread  of 
population,  the  increase  of  territory,  the  development  of  means 
of  communication,  and  the  opening  up  of  new  industries  had 
been  more  effective.  Jefferson  had  wanted  to  have  the  people 
recognized  as  the  source  of  power,  but  he  wished  to  have  edu 
cated  men  use  the  power  thus  obtained.  He  thought,  moreover, 
that  tyranny  would  be  averted  if  these  picked  men  represented 
localities,  or  states,  which  would  be  jealous  of  their  rights,  and 
not  the  nation  at  large,  which  would  not  be  thus  jealous.  The 
new  democracy,  on  the  other  hand,  wrhile  suspicious  of  strong 
government,  was  national  in  its  sympathies,  rather  than  local,  as 
was  soon  proved  by  Jackson.  The  lately  formed  states  of  the 
West,  being  all  younger  than  the  Union,  many  of  them  creations 
by  that  Union  out  of  national  territory,  had  less  state  pride  than 
the  older  commonwealths  which  had  formed  the  Union.  The 
new  conditions  of  trade  were,  moreover,  somewhat  obliterating 
state  lines  in  the  North  and  East  by  inducing  travel  and 
correspondence  on  the  part  of  business  men.  Thus  the  local 
democracy  represented  by  Jefferson  was  being  more  and  more 
confined  to  the  South,  but  it  kept  up  an  alliance  with  the 
national  and  more  radical  democracy  represented  by  Jackson 


§  346]  PROGRESS   OF  THE   NATION. 

down  to  the  Civil  War.  Manhood  suffrage,  dependence  of  office 
holders  upon  the  wishes  of  the  electorate,  and  other  principles 
of  the  Jacksonian  democracy  have  become  the  political  heri 
tage  of  Americans,  regardless  of  party 

345.  Changes  among  the  People.  —  The  new  democracy  was 
strong  and  honest,  but  very  ignorant.     It  was  controlled  by 
clever  politicians,  who  used  the  machinery  of  caucus,  primary 
election,  and  nominating  conventions,  and  also  introduced  the 
ideas  of  the  supreme  virtue  of  party  fealty,  and  of  the  propriety 
of  distributing  the  spoils  of  office  to  the  victors  in  each  succes 
sive  election.     In  other  words,  men  were  being  taught  to  dis 
trust  their  individual  judgment  and  to  trust  that  of  their  party. 
These  ideas  were  held  in  all  honesty,  and  few  persons  had  time 
to  consider  whither  they  would   lead.     Pew  saw  that   party 
loyalty  was  taking  the  place  of  patriotism,  that  desire  for  the 
gains  of  office  was  supplanting   the    spirit  of   patriotic   self- 
sacrifice.     The   country  had  grown   tremendously  in  area,  in 
population,  and  in  wealth.     Steamers  were  running  in  every 
direction,  and  railroads  were  soon  to  be  built.     Religious  and 
educational  lethargy  had  been  shaken,  and  new  ideas  were  in  the 
air.     National  democracy,  with  its  theories  of  the  right  of  all 
to  aspire  to  office,  and  its  businesslike  way  of  rewarding  its 
successful  supporters,  was  itself,  therefore,  a  part  of  a  great 
transformation  of  three  fourths  of  the  American  people. 

PROGRESS   OF   THE   NATION. 

346.  Growth   of  the  Nation. —It  is   difficult  to  realize  the 
extent  of  this  transformation.     In  1789  Spain  hemmed  us  in 
to  the  South  and  West  and  the  British  had   not   abandoned 
fortresses  that  belonged  to  us  in  the  Northwest.     Just  beyond 
the  Alleghanies  the  Indians  were  still  a  menace.     Forty  years 
later  our  domain  stretched  far  beyond  the  Mississippi,  Spain 
had  yielded  Florida,  and  Great  Britain  respected  our  rights. 
The  Seminoies  in  Florida,  and  other  tribes  in  the  far  West, 
were  still  to  give  trouble,  but  everywhere  the  wigwam  was 


266  THE   JACKSONIAN  EPOCH,    1829-1837.  [§  347 

retreating  before  the  log  cabin.  A  generation  before,  the  Atlan 
tic  seaboard  had  dominated  the  country  in  population,  educa 
tion,  and  wealth.  Now  the  West  was,  not  indeed  the  equal  of 
the  East,  but  a  formidable  rival.  Since  the  War  of  1812,  the 
migration  i:o  Northwest  and  Southwest  had  been  marvelous. 
The  people  seemed  determined  to  fill  up  their  more  than 
two  million  square  miles  of  territory.  Emigrants  from  Europe 
had  not  begun  to  come  over  in  great  numbers,  but  American 
families  were  large  and  always  ready  to  move  to  a  favorable 
locality,  especially  from  rugged  New  England  to  the  fertile 
West.  Improved  roads,  canals,  and  steamboats  facilitated  the 
movement  of  population,  but  even  in  the  South,  where  roads 
were  bad,  enterprising  families  moved  by  thousands  from  Vir 
ginia  and  the  Carolinas  into  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  which 
with  their  rich  lands  invited  the  cotton  planter  and  his  slaves. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  is  no  wonder  that  by  1830  the 
population  of  the  country  had  reached  nearly  thirteen  millions, 
and  that  eleven  new  states  had  been  added  to  the  old  thirteen. 

347.  Material  and  Moral  Progress. — Perhaps  the  greatest 
change  that  had  taken  place  in  America  was  the  increased 
mental  and  moral  energy  displayed  by  its  inhabitants.  The 
people  were  still  provincial,  but  they  were  no  longer  sluggish. 
The  War  of  1812  had  developed  their  national  spirit ;  their 
own  growth  in  population,  and  their  acquisitions  of  territory, 
out  of  which  wealth  in  all  forms  could  be  easily  extracted,  had 
developed  their  desire  to  prosper.  They  were  no  longer  con 
tent  slowly  to  grow  moderately  rich.  They  fostered  manufac 
tures  and  commerce  and  agriculture.  They  became  a  nation  of 
inventors,  and,  what  was  more  important,  they  developed  a 
capacity  for  pure  science  which  made  the  name  of  America 
honored  throughout  the  world.  Out  of  their  midst  sprang 
essayists  and  novelists  and  poets  who  interpreted  their  life  to 
them.  There  was  a  notable  growth  of  the  religious  spirit; 
temperance  and  other  reforms  were  agitated ;  more  attention 
was  paid  to  education  j  public  charities  of  all  kinds  received 


§  348]  PROGRESS   OF  THE   NATION.  267 

popular  support.  Nor  were  minor  things  overlooked.  Men 
of  all  classes  began  to  strive  to  provide  household  comforts 
for  their  families.  Travel  was  made  more  comfortable.  Good 
hotels  began  to  replace  bad  inns.  Urban  life  did  not  attract 
country  people  as  it  does  now,  but  the  towns  had  grown  and 
prospered.  New  York  was  in  1830  a  city  of  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  Philadelphia  was  not  far  behind.  Cin 
cinnati  had  grown  from  a  mere  village  to  a  town  of  nearly 
twenty-five  thousand  people.  Throughout  the  North,  East,  and 
West,  therefore,  the  watchword  was  "  Development."  Even  in 
the  South,  which  was  rendered  conservative  and  sluggish  by 
the  presence  of  slavery,  there  were  not  wanting  proofs  that 
many  energetic  men  would  like  to  imitate  their  more  fortunate 
brothers  of  other  sections.  Like  the  rest  of  the  country,  the 
South  hoped  for  great  things  from  her  future  railroads  and 
canals,  but  her  industrial  future  was  still  far  in  the  distance. 

348,  Political  Conditions.  —  Although  the  East  and  North 
led  the  rest  of  the  country  in  manufacturing  and  commerce, 
and  although  the  West  was  developing  agriculture  to  a  great 
degree,  political  power  had  not  passed  to  them  as  completely 
as  a  casual  observer  might  have  perhaps  expected.  The  South 
might  be  conservative,  but  it  had  an  immense  source  of  wealth 
in  its  cotton ;  and  buying,  as  it  did,  many  supplies  from  the 
North,  it  was  a  customer  not  to  be  offended.  Hence  many 
Northern  politicians  opposed  Southern  schemes  less  violently 
than  they  would  otherwise  have  done,  and  hence  the  South 
seemed  to  have  disproportionate  power  at  Washington.  Be 
sides,  Southern  planters  had  more  leisure  to  think  of  politics 
than  busier  citizens  elsewhere,  and  their  emotional  tempera 
ments  naturally  inclined  them  to  political  leadership.  But 
they  were  being  more  and  more  outnumbered  every  year  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  the  Missouri  Controversy  had 
shown  them  how  increasingly  difficult  it  would  be  to  keep  the 
Senate  balanced  between  free  and  slave  states.  In  view  of 
their  perilous  position,  they  naturally  became  all  the  more 


268  THE  JACKSONiAN   EPOCH,    1829-1837.  [§349 

domineering  and  haughty  in  their  demands.  This,  however, 
roused  the  temper  of  the  other  sections.  Wealthy  New  Eng 
land  had  time  and  means  to  develop  the  philanthropic  spirit,  and 
an  anti-slavery  movement  was  sure  to  follow.  The  Northwest, 
settled  largely  by  New  Englanders,  would  take  this  movement 
up,  although  hampered  by  the  presence  of  Southern  immi 
grants  in  Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  was  impossible  either  for 
the  descendants  of  the  Puritans  or  for  the  hardy  pioneers  to 
tolerate  long  the  domination  of  an  aristocracy  based  on  slavery. 

349.  The  New  West.  —  The  Western  man,  especially,  living 
in  his  log  cabin,  pursuing  the  primitive  unconventional  life  of 
a  farmer,  could  not  sympathize  with  an  aristocracy  that  did 
not  work  with  its  hands,  and  must  sympathize  with  slaves  that 
did.     The  graces  of  Southern  social  life  counted  for  little  with 
Puritan  or  pioneer,  and  when  the  fight  was  begun  the  moral 
enthusiasm  of  the  one,  and  the  shrewd  sense,  plain  morality, 
and  superb  energy  of  the  other,  would  insure  the  victory  for 
freedom.     The  election  of  Jackson,  who,  although   partly  a 
Southerner,   was    more    a   Westerner,   meant,   therefore,  not 
merely  the  triumph  of  a  new  democracy,  but  that  the  center 
of  political  power  had  crossed  the  Alleghanies,  and  that  the 
control  which  the  South  had  exercised  over  the  Union  from  the 
first  was  passing  to  stronger  hands. 

350.  Changes  in  New  England.  —  In  New  England,  also,  the 
spirit  of  understanding  which  had  long  existed  with  the.  South 
on  account  partly  of  trade  connections,  partly  of  the  English 
homogeneity  common   to  both  sections,  was  rapidly  passing 
away.     The  old  New  England  of  farmers  and  sailors  was  now 
becoming    more   and   more   a   country  of   manufacturers   and 
artisans.     The  old   Puritan    leaven  still   fermented,  —  not   as 
formerly,  within  the  churches,  the  power  of  which  had  con 
spicuously  declined,  but  in  new  forms  of  philanthropy,  philoso 
phy,  and  literature.     New  England  had  always  been  a  power 
in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  nation,  but  from  1830  to  1860  this 
power  was  vastly  increased.     From  her  midst  came  abolition- 


350] 


PROGRESS   OF   THE   NATION. 


269 


ists  like  Garrison1  and  others  shortly  to  be  mentioned.  In 
Webster  she  had  the  greatest  of  orators  and  of  exponents  of 
the  national  idea.  In 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  ^ 
(1803-1882)  she  had  a 
teacher  of  high  mo 
rality  and  a  philoso 
pher  who,  if  vague,  like 
his  fellow-members  of 
the  school  known  as 
Transcendental,  pos 
sessed,  nevertheless, 
an  inspiring  person 
ality.  In  the  elder 
William  Ellery  Chan- 
ning  (1780-1842)  and 
Theodore  Parker2  she 
had  clergymen  whose 
influence  was  felt  far 
beyond  their  section. 
In  Henry  Wadsworth 
Longfellow  (1807-1882) 

she  had  the  sweetest  and  most  popular  of  native  poets; 
and  in  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (1807-1892),  a  sturdy  poet- 
champion  of  human  liberty.  James  Russell  Lowell  (1819- 
1891),  too,  was  a  young  son  of  Massachusetts  who,  as  poet 
and  critic,  was  to  do  good  work  for  the  nation.  All  these 
great  men  were,  more  or  less,  forces  to  be  counted  against  the 

1  Born,  1805;  died,  1879.    Writer  on  Newburyport  Herald,  1818-1826 ;  edited 
various  emancipation  papers,  1826-1831 ;  editor  of  the  great  agitation  organ 
in  behalf  of  emancipation,  the  Liberator,  1831-1860;   formed  the  American 
Anti-slavery  Society  and  became  its  president  in  1832 ;  perhaps  had  greater 
influence  than  any  other  man  in  behalf  of  emancipation. 

2  Born,  1810 ;  died,  1860.    Was  pastor  of  Unitarian  Church  at  West  Roxbury 
from  1837  to  1845 ;  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  emancipation ;  was  very  promi 
nent  as  an  orator  and  pamphleteer ;  founded  a  church  in  Boston  for  the  advo 
cacy  of  new  and  more  radical  phases  of  the  Unitarian  movement. 


WILLIAM  LLOYD  GARRISON. 


270 


THE  JACKSONIAN  EPOCH,    1829-1837. 


[§350 


continued  dominance  of  the  South  in  politics.  With  the  ex 
ception  of  Webster  they  were  not  politicians,  but  they  were 
thinkers  who  taught  others  to  think.  Against  them  the  South, 
even  with  the  poet  and  story  writer,  Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1809- 
1849),  could  set  no  such  galaxy  of  genius,  save  in  the  sphere  of 
politics  ;  and  with  the  exception  of  Calhoun,  the  Southern  states 
men  of  the  new  generation  were  inferior  to  those  of  the  old. 

'  Nor  were  the  Middle  states, 

rich  and  populous  though 
they  were,  capable  of  com 
peting  with  New  England  as 
a  factor  in  the  nation's  life. 
Able  politicians  and  editors 

ff  ^M^  JflH  were  coming  to  the  front,  and 

there  were  some  authors  of 
"  great  power,  such  as  James 

Fenimore  Cooper  (1789-1851) 
and  Washington  Irving 
(1783-1859),  but  none  capa 
ble  of  supplying  such  civic 
inspiration  as  writers  like 
Emerson  and  Whittier. 
William  Cullen  Bryant 
(1794-1878)  might  be  counted 
in  this  connection,  for  he 

did  his  main  work  in  New  York,  but  he  was  New  England 
born.  In  short,  it  may  be  fairly  said  that  New  England  repre 
sented  for  the  generation  before  the  Civil  War  the  progressive, 
moral  sense  of  the  nation  in  the  great  question  of  freedom 
versus  slavery ;  for  that  portion  of  the  West  which  served  the 
cause  of  liberty  was  settled  chiefly  by  New  England  people. 
Curiously  enough,  the  greatest  imaginative  genius  that  New 
England  produced,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (1804-1864),  the 
romancer,  took  little  interest  in  the  burning  question  of  the  day. 


THEODORE  PARKER. 


REFERENCES.  —See  Chapters  XVII.  and  XVIII. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

JACKSON'S   FIRST   ADMINISTRATION,  1829-1833. 

A  POPULAR   AUTOCRAT. 

351.  The  Spoils  System.  —  Jackson's  inauguration  was  a  sig 
nal  for  crowds  of  his  active  supporters  to  hasten  to  Washington 
for  their  rewards.     At  the  reception  at  the  White  House  they 
displayed  the  rudeness  of  a  mob,  and  furnished  a  sharp  contrast 
with  the  stately  levees  held  by  Washington  in  New  York. 
But  worse  things  were  to  follow.     Through  a  Tenure  of  Office 
Act,  due  to  Crawford  (1820),  many  positions  fell  vacant  every 
four  years.     These  vacancies  enabled  the  President's  advisers 
partly  to  satisfy  the  demands  made  upon  him,  but  the  poli 
ticians  also  induced  him  to  use  his  power  of  removal.     In  a  few 
months  over  five  times  as  many  changes  were  made  in  the  civil 
service  as  had  been  made  by  all  Jackson's  predecessors.     As  a 
matter  of  course  these  wholesale  removals  from  office  brought 
many  incompetent  men  into  positions  of  trust,  but  it  is  quite 
clear  that  Jackson  did  not  realize  what  he  was  doing.     He 
thought  he  was  rewarding  faithful  friends  instead  of  inflicting 
a  disgrace  and  an  incalculable  injury  upon  his  country.     He 
was  a  kind-hearted  man,  but  some  of  the  official  changes  that 
he  made  on  the  advice  of  his  political  managers  could  scarcely 
have  been  more  cruel  if  he  had  been  really  merciless. 

352.  Jackson's  Cabinet.  —  Jackson's  Cabinet  was  chosen  upon 
the  basis  of  friendship  or  service  and  was  mediocre  in  charac 
ter.    Van  Buren,1  who  was  made  Secretary  of  State,  had  ability, 

i  Born,  1782 ;  died,  1862.    Early  rose  to  eminence  in  New  York  as  a  lawyer 
and  politician;  United  States  senator,  1821-1828;  governor,  1828-1829;  Secre- 

271 


272      JACKSON'S   FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833.      [§  352 


it  is  true,  and  showed  it  conspicuously  in  the  way  he  humored 
Jackson  in  order  to  secure  the  Presidential  succession.  Two 
Secretaries  were  friends  of  Calhoun,  the  Vice  President,  who 
had  thus  far  supported  Jackson.  Within  three  years,  how 
ever,  the  Cabinet 
was,  with  one  ex 
ception,  reconsti 
tuted.  This  very 
unusual  and  auto 
cratic  procedure 
of  Jackson's  was 
owing  partly  to 
the  alienation  from 
Calhoun  which  fol 
lowed  Jackson's 
discovery  that  the 
South  Carolinian 
had  wished  to  have 
him  punished  for 
his  high-handed 
conduct  in  Florida 
(§  324,  note  2),  and 
partly  to  the  un 
willingness  of  the 
MARTIN  VAN  BUBEN. 

wives  of  the  other 

Secretaries  to  call  upon  the  wife  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  This 
change  in  the  personnel  of  the  Cabinet  but  slightly  affected  the 
character  of  the  administration,  since  Jackson  rarely  consulted 
his  constitutional  advisers,  but  preferred  to  take  the  advice  of 
a  small  group  of  friends  known  as  the  "Kitchen  Cabinet." 


tary  of  State  under  Jackson,  1829-1831 ;  Vice  President  with  Jackson,  1833- 
1837;  elected  President,  1836;  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  Harrison  in 
1840 ;  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1844 ;  received  a  majority  of  votes 
in  Democratic  Convention  in  1844,  but  was  beaten  by  Polk  under  the  two 
thirds  rule ;  was  Free  Soil  candidate  for  President  in  1848,  and  drew  enough 
electoral  votes  from  Cass  to  elect  Taylor. 


§  353]  A   POPULAR   AUTOCRAT.  273 

These  men,  chief  among  whom  were  William  B.  Lewis,  an  old 
Tennessee  neighbor,  and  Amos  Kendall,  later  Postmaster-Gen 
eral,  acted  as  "  coaches  "  to  the  old  warrior.  But  the  daring 
and  energy  needed  for  carrying  out  certain  of  his  policies 
were  furnished  by  himself. 

353.  Jackson's  Autocratic  Reign.  —  Jackson,  in  spite  of  his 
theories  about  the  duty  of  an  executive  to  do  the  people's  will, 
was  too  much  accustomed  to  command  to  be  able  to  play  the 
part  of  a  constitutional  President  with  any  grace.  When  he  had 
made  up  his  mind  to  do  a  thing  there  was  no  stopping  him.  Of 
all  our  Presidents  he,  the  most  typically  democratic,  with  the 
exception  of  Andrew  Johnson,  was  the  most  typical  autocrat. 
Opponents  called  him  "  King  Andrew "  and  his  two  adminis 
trations  are  often  spoken  of  as  the  "  Reign  of  Andrew  Jackson." 
Yet  to  his  credit  be  it  said,  that  when  he  was  not  persuaded 
to  act  spitefully,  he  always  acted  fairly  and  for  what  he 
believed  to  be  the  interests  of  the  nation.  He  bullied  Mexico, 
but  he  would  not  be  bullied  by  South  Carolina.  He  insulted 
Chief  Justice  Marshall,  was  unforgiving  to  Calhoun,  but  was 
loyal  to  Van  Buren.  He  was  stern  when  his  resolution  to 
act  was  kindled ;  yet  at  times  he  was  remarkably  gentle. 
Almost  the  only  time  his  will  was  successfully  crossed  was 
when  the  women  of  Washington  refused  to  receive  Secretary 
Eaton's  wife.  But  in  describing  him  thus  we  are  evidently 
dealing  with  a  real  man,  not  with  a  mere  personification  of 
the  nation's  dignity.  The  history  of  Jackson's  administra 
tions  is  the  biography  of  Jackson  himself  —  a  fact  which 
shows  us  that  republican  governments  are  sometimes  as 
much  affected  by  personal  influences  as  monarchies  are. 
The  parallel  between  his  career  and  that  of  a  typical  auto 
cratic  ruler  is  drawn  still  closer  when  we  remember  that 
an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him.  But  this  parallel 
must  not  be  pushed  too  far.  No  man  ever  more  truly 
wished  to  serve  the  people  that  elected  him  than  Andrew 
Jackson. 


274      JACKSON'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833.      [§  364 


354.  Jackson   as   an   Administrator.  —  Jackson's  administra 
tions  form  a  turning  point  in  our  history  and  are  important 
from  almost  every  point  of  view.     Only  their  leading  features 
can  be  treated  here,  but  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  whenever 

he  could,  —  as  in  the  mat 
ter  of  internal  improve 
ments,  —  Jackson  played 
the  part  of  a  strict  con- 
structionist.  When  it  was 
agreeable  to  him,  he  fa 
vored  state  sovereignty,  as 
when  he  refused  to  support 
Chief  Justice  Marshall  and 
the  Supreme  Court  in  their 
decisions  against  Georgia, 
which  state  continued  to 
act  toward  the  Cherokees 
as  badly  as  it  had  done 
toward  the  Creeks.  Geor 
gia  officials  treated  Mar 
shall  with  contempt,  and 
Jackson  is  reported  to  have 

said,  "John  Marshall  has  made  his  law,  now  let  him  enforce 
it."  Such  a  divorce  between  the  executive  and  the  judiciary, 
if  long  continued,  would  mean  anarchy ;  but  it  must  be  remem 
bered  that  Jackson,  an  old  backwoodsman,  would  of  course  sym 
pathize  with  the  white  men  of  Georgia.1  But  he  would  tolerate 
no  violation  of  national  laws  which  he  thought  it  right  to  defend, 
and  he  considered  the  voice  of  the  people  sufficient  authority 
for  some  very  loose  constructions  of  the  Constitution. 

THE  DEBATE  OVER  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

355.  The  Webster-Hay ne  Debate.  —  Probably  the  most  strik 
ing  event  of  Jackson's   first  administration  is  the  great   de- 

1  The  Indian  problem  was  partly  solved  during  Jackson's  administrations 
by  the  transfer  of  some  of  the  tribes  to  Indian  Territory. 


DANIEL  WEBSTER. 


§355] 


THE   NATURE   OF  THE   CONSTITUTION. 


275 


bate  of  1830  between  Webster1  and  Hayne.  It  grew  out 
of  some  resolutions  of  Senator  Foote  of  Connecticut  with 
regard  to  the  rapid  sales 
of  public  lands.  The 
cheapness  of  land  drew 
population  westward,  and 
this  raised  the  price  of 
labor  in  the  older  states ; 
hence  the  interest  of  New 
England  seemed  to  lie  in 
opposing  the  policy  of 
granting  portions  of  the 
public  domain  to  new 
comers  on  very  easy 
terms.  The  resolutions 
were  hotly  opposed  by 
Senator  Thomas  H.  Ben- 
ton2  of  Missouri,  a  lead 
ing  supporter  of  Jackson. 
Benton  and  all  West 
erners  naturally  thought 
the  prevailing  policy  wise 
because  it  brought  men  and  money  to  the  new  commonwealths, 

1  Born  in  New  Hampshire,  1782 ;  died,  1852.     Was  educated  at  Phillips  Exe 
ter  Academy,  and  at  Dartmouth  College,  graduating  in  1801;  admitted  to  the 
har  at  Boscawen,  New  Hampshire,  in  1805;  member  of  Congress,  1813-1817; 
moved  to  Boston  and  in  1818  rose  to  the  front  rank  of  lawyers  by  his  labors 
in  the  "Dartmouth  College  Case";  congressman,  1823-1827;  became  widely 
known  as  orator  by  his  orations  at  Plymouth,  1820,  and  Bunker  Hill,  1825, 
and  his  eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson,  1826;  entered  the  Senate  in  1827,  and 
at  once  took  high  rank  as  a  leader ;  favored  the  protective  tariff  of  1828 ;  won 
the  highest  distinction  as  "Expounder  of  the  Constitution"  in  debate  with 
Hayne  in  1830;    Secretary  of  State,  1841;  negotiated  the  Ashburton  Treaty, 
1842;  resigned  in  1843;  reentered  the  Senate,  1845;  gave  feeble  support  to 
Taylor  in  1848 ;  alienated  many  old  friends  by  his  7th  of  March  speech  in  1850, 
in  which  he  supported  Clay's  Compromises  and  took  a  conservative  position  on 
the  question  of  slavery ;  Secretary  of  State,  1850-1852. 

2  Bora  in  North  Carolina,  1782;  died,  1858.   Early  migrated  to  Tennessee; 
was  colonel  in  the  War  of  1812 ;  went  to  Missouri  and  became  a  journalist  in 


THOMAS  H.  BENTON. 


276      JACKSON'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833.      [§355 


Senator  Kobert  Y.  Hayne l  of  South  Carolina  came  to  the  help 
of  the  Western  men,  since  to  most  Southerners  New  England 

was  now  obnoxious  on  ac 
count  of  the  Tariff  of  Abomi 
nations  (§  340),  and  since 
the  West,  being  compara 
tively  unsettled,  might,  they 
thought,  possibly  be  won  to 
slavery's  side.  Webster  re 
plied  to  Hayne,  and  the  latter 
returned  to  the  attack,  but  on 
a  different  line.  He  discussed 
the  nature  of  the  general 
government  and  gave  warn 
ing  that  if  the  South  were 
not  relieved  of  tariff  bur 
dens,  the  remedy  of  a  state 
veto  would  have  to  be  re 
sorted  to.  In  other  words, 
he  advanced  Calhoun's  doc 
trine  of  nullification,  which, 

as  we  have  seen,  was  an  extension  of  the  principles  enunci 
ated  by  Virginia  and  Kentucky  in  1798,  and  by  the  Hartford 
Convention  in  1814  (§§  279  and  315).  I  Webster  replied  in 
his  most  famous  speech,  and  as  an  orator  certainly  got  the 

1813 ;  was  United  States  senator  from  Missouri,  1821-1851 ;  was  during  this 
whole  period  deemed  second  in  influence  only  to  the  great  trio  Calhoun,  Clay, 
and  Webster;  was  a  stanch  advocate  of  favorable  land  laws,  of  post  roads, 
of  the  development  of  the  West,  and  of  conservatism  in  finance ;  strenuously 
supported  Jackson  and  opposed  Calhoun  ;  published  valuable  Thirty  Years 
View,  and  Abridgment  of  Debates  of  Congress. 

l  Born  in  South  Carolina,  1791 ;  died,  1839.  Served  in  War  of  1812 ;  member 
of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature,  1814-1818 ;  attorney-general  of  South  Caro 
lina,  1818-1822 ;  elected  to  United  States  Senate,  1823 ;  opposed  the  protective 
system,  denying  its  constitutionality ;  was  chairman  of  the  nullifying  conven 
tion  of  1832 ;  governor  of  South  Carolina,  1832-1834,  when  the  state  prepared 
to  enforce  its  ideas  of  nullification,  —  a  movement  which  was  prevented  by 
Clay's  compromise  tariff. 


ROBERT  Y.  HAYNE. 


§  356.1 


THE   NATURE   OF   THE   CONSTITUTION. 


277 


better  of  his  opponent,  although  Hayne's  defense  of  his 
own  position  was  masterly.  Even  Calhoun  himself,  who,  as 
he  was  serving  his  second  term  as  Vice  President,  could 
not  join  in  the  debate,  would  hardly  have  presented  his 
own  views  more  clearly.  Whether  Webster  eclipsed  Hayne 
as  a  political  reasoner,  is  a  point  on  which  the  North  and 
the  South  have  never  been  in  perfect  agreement.  /Webster 
denied  Hayne's  postulate  that  the  Union  rested  on  a  compact, 
and  affirmed  that  the  Constitution  had  established  a  general 
government  with  powers  sufficient  to  enforce  its  rights  even 
against  the  component  states. 

356.  The  Theoretical  and  the  Historical  View.  —  Few  will 
now  deny  that  Webster  was  right  as  a  theoretical  publicist, 
for  a  constitution  which 
admitted  the  right  of 
secession  or  of  nullifica 
tion  would  have  framed 
a  farcical  government. 
But  whether  he  was  right 
from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  constitutional  law 
yer  or  of  the  historical 
annalist  is  quite  a  differ 
ent  matter.  There  were 
nationalists  from  the  be 
ginning,  but  it  seems 
probable  that  most  men 
in  1789  believed  that  the 

Constitution  was  a  compact  between  the  states.  By  1830 
the  North,  and  much  of  the  West,  had  been  nationalized  and 
had  more  or  less  forgotten  or  abandoned  the  compact  theory. 
But  the  South,  less  changed,  adhered  to  it,  especially  as  on  it 
a  minority  party  could  base  a  constitutional  resistance  to  an 
obnoxious  policy  like  the  tariff.  Hence  it  seems  fair  to  con 
clude  that  Webster  was  right  as  a  publicist,  partly  unsound 


DANIEL  WEBSTER'S  CARRIAGE. 


278       JACKSON'S  FIRST   ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833.     [§  357 

as  a  lawyer  and  annalist ;  but  that  the  future  was  with  him, 
the  past  with  Hayne.  That  the  past  was  with  Hayne  is 
partly  at  least  confirmed  by  the  general  historical  fact  that 
minority  parties,  needing  all  the  support  they  can  get,  make 
a  careful  study  of  precedents  and  have  every  interest  in  not 
making  mistakes  in  their  procedure.  Parties  of  progress,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  rarely  careful  about  their  reasoning  from 
precedents.  It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  much  of  the  political 
strength  the  Southerners  still  possessed  lay  in  the  fact  that 
they  were  on  the  defensive  and  could  obstruct  legislation  by 
strictly  construing  the  Constitution. 

THE   TARIFF   AND   NULLIFICATION. 

357.  Jackson  and  Calhoun.  —  Shortly  after  the  debate  it  looked 
as  if  South  Carolina  at  least  would  put  Calhoun's  theory  in 
operation.     The  tariff  of  1828  had  been  reformed  in  1830  and 
in  1832,  but  the  protective  idea  was  still  dominant,  and  against 
this  idea  the  Southerners  were  firmly  set.    They  wished  to  resist 
in  some  way,  but  they  soon  found  that  they  could  not  count 
on  Jackson  to  help  them  as   he  had   helped  Georgia.     That 
old  warrior  had  answered  their  overtures,  when  attending  a 
banquet  given  on  Jefferson's  birthday,  at  which  disunion  sen 
timents  were  openly  expressed,  by  giving,  as  his  contribution 
to   the    entertainment,   the    toast,    "  Our   Federal    Union :    it 
must  be  preserved."     They  could  count  on  Calhoun,  however, 
with  more  certainty  than  ever,  for  his   break   with   Jackson 
took  place  about  this  time  ;  and,  so  far  as  logical  exposition 
goes,  no  cause  has  ever  had   more  remarkable   support  than 
Calhoun  gave  the  milliners.      Jackson,  however,  received   a 
stronger  support.    He  was  reflected  in  1832  by  a  very  large 
majority  4  and    believed   that   the    people    meant   him    to  go 
ahead  and  preserve  the. Union,  as  well  as  to  carry  out  other 
important  policies. 

358.  Nullification. — Meanwhile  those  South  Carolinians  who 
thought  as  Calhoun  did,  in  spite  of  considerable  opposition  from 


§358]  THE   TARIFF   AND   NULLIFICATION.  279 

their  fellow-citizens,  caused  a  State  Convention  to  be  assembled 
in  November,  1832.  This  body  declared  the  tariff  acts  of  1828 
and  1832  null  and  void  so  far  as  South  Carolina  was  concerned, 
and  prohibited  payment  of  duties  under  them  after  Febru 
ary  1,  1833.  Jackson  replied  by  a  strong  proclamation,  which 
urged  the  necessity  of  every  true  patriot's  supporting  the 
laws  and  officers  of  the  Union.  Unfortunately  many  good 
South  Carolinians  thought  that  a  patriot  ought  to  support  the 
state  first,  and  the  Union  afterward.  Jackson,  however,  did 
not  rely  on  a  mere  proclamation.  He  dispatched  soldiers 
and  vessels  to  Charleston,  and  asked'  Congress  to  pass  a  bill 
enlarging  his  powers  so  that  he  might  legally  crush  the 
incipient  revolution.  Congress  in  reply  passed  what  is  known 
as  the  Force  Bill,  March  1,  1833.  No  force  was  needed,  how 
ever.  The  other  Southern  states  did  not  stand  by  South 
Carolina,  for  although  most  of  them  believed  in  the  right  of 
secession  as  a  last  resort,  they  had  little  sympathy  with  nul 
lification.  They  did  not  see  how  a  state  could  remain  in  the 
Union,  and  yet  not  obey  the  latter's  laws.  The  nullifiers, 
under  their  leaders, — Hayne,  who  was  now  Governor  of  South 
Carolina,  and  Calhoun,  who  had  taken  Hayne's  place  in  the 
Senate,  —  had  hoped  for  concession  rather  than  war,  and,  pend 
ing  the  action  of  Congress,  suspended  the  nullification  ordinance. 
The  administration,  too,  while  determined  to  assert  itself,  had 
no  great  interest  in  the  protective  system,  the  cause  of  the 
quarrel.  At  this  juncture  Clay  again  played  the  part  of  a 
compromiser,  and  a  tariff  act,  providing  for  a  gradual  return 
in  ten  years  to  the  mild  duties  of  1816,  was  made  law,  March 
2,  1833,  one  day  after  the  Force  Bill  was  passed  and  a  day 
before  the  obnoxious  tariff  of  1832  was  to  have  gone  into  effect. 
On  their  side,  the  South  Carolinians  held  another  convention, 
and  repealed  their  first  nullifying  ordinance,  but  nullified  the 
Force  Bill.  Thus  it  was  practically  a  drawn  battle — neither 
side  abandoning  its  principles,  but  both  making  concessions 
in  a  not  altogether  brave  and  creditable  way.  As  was  to  be 
expected,  both  parties  claimed  a  victory.  In  South  Carolina 


280       JACKSON'S   FIRST   ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833.     [§358 

Calhoun's  influence  grew  steadily  stronger,  and  the  militia  of 
the  state  seems  to  have  been  kept  up  with  the  distinct  idea 
that  it  might  be  available  in  another  crisis  with  the  general 
government.  On  the  other  hand,  Jackson  had  maintained  the 
dignity  of  the  Union,  and  the  tariff  compromisers,  following  the 
Missouri  compromisers,  had  succeeded  in  putting  off  the  day 
of  reckoning  until  the  Free  states  were  strong  enough  to  crush 
slavery  and  still  retain  the  Southern  states  in  the  Union. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  see  Chapter  XVIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS:  same  as  for  Chapter  XVII.,  with  the  addition  of: 
George  T.  Curtis,  Daniel  Webster;  T.  Roosevelt,  Thomas  H.  Benton 
("  American  Statesmen  ")  ;  E.  M.  Shepard,  Martin  Van  Buren  ("Amer 
ican  Statesmen")  ;  A.  C.  McLaughlin,  Lewis  Cass  ("American  States 
men");  W.  G.  Sumner,  Andrew  Jackson  ("American  Statesmen"); 
J.  Parton,  Andrew  Jackson ;  W.  P.  Trent,  Calhoun,  in  Southern  States 
men  of  the  Old  Regime ;  C.  W.  Loring,  Nullification,  Secession,  etc. ; 
D.  F.  Houston,  Study  of  Nullification  in  South  Carolina  ("Harvard 
Historical  Studies"). 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

JACKSON'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,  1833-1837. 

THE   ABOLITIONISTS. 

359.  Anti-slavery  Agitation.  —  The  tariff  was  not  destined 
to  remain  the  chief  grievance  of  the  Southerners.  They  were 
soon  far  more  concerned  with  the  growing  agitation  against 
slavery  which  was  being  waged  by  determined  men  and  women 
in  the  North.  At  the  head  of  these  abolitionists,  as  they  were 
styled,  stood  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  who  in  1831  established 
his  anti-slavery  paper,  The  Liberator,  in  Boston.  Up  to  this 
time  many  leading  Southerners,  including  Washington  and 
Jefferson,  had  deplored  the  existence  of  slavery  without  see 
ing  how  to  get  rid  of  it.  Now,  feeling  outraged  by  the  attacks 
made  upon  their  section,  and  fearing  other  slave  insurrections 
like  one  incited  by  Nat  Turner  in  Virginia  in  1831,  they 
began  to  defend  their  institution  as  a  property  right  secured 
to  them  by  law,  and  a  profitable  one  in  view  of  the  increased 
demand  for  cotton.  Efforts  for  emancipation,  such  as  those 
made  by  representatives  of  the  mountain  districts  of  Virginia, 
in  a  convention  held  in  that  state  in  1829-1830,  were  abandoned. 
A  pro-slavery  literature  was  produced,  which  treated  slavery  not 
as  an  evil  to  be  abated,  but  as  a  benefit  to  be  spread.  Stricter 
penal  laws  were  enacted  with  regard  to  the  blacks,  and  the  abo 
litionists  were  denounced  and  threatened.  The  latter  received 
at  first  similar  treatment  in  the  North,  where  they  were  fre 
quently  mobbed.  They  continued  to  make  proselytes,  how 
ever,  and  by  1836  had  put  the  nation  in  a  turmoil,  as  a  result 
of  their  petitions  to  Congress  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia. 

281 


282    JACKSON'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  1833-1837.     [§360 


360.  Abolitionist  Petitions  to  Congress.  —  The  Southerners, 
alarmed  at  the  thought  of  the  bad  effects  upon  their  interests 
that  debate  on  these  petitions  might  have,  secured  the  passage 
of  resolutions  tabling  them.  But  they  found  it  hard  to  silence 
such  an  advocate  as  John  Quincy  Adams,  who  had  not  dis 
dained  to  serve  his  country  in  the  House  of  Representatives 

after  having  held  the  high 
est  office  open  to  a  citizen. 
Adams  was  not  an  aboli 
tionist,  but  he  did  believe 
in  the  right  of  all  citizens 
to  petition  Congress,  and 
until  his  death,  in  1848,  he 
championed  the  cause  of 
liberty  in  the  most  elo 
quent  way.  Soon,  too,  the 
Southerners  had  the  diffi 
cult  task  of  disposing  of 
the  abolitionist  pamphlets 
sent  through  the  mails. 
As  a  result  of  their  efforts 
to  suppress  freedom  of 
speech  and  kindred  rights, 
the  cause  they  were  oppos 
ing  gained  in  strength.  It  had  its  martyr  in  E.  P.  Lovejoy, 
murdered  in  Alton,  Illinois,  in  1837,  and  its  fiery  orator  in 
Wendell  Phillips1  of  Boston.  It  had  the  future  with  it 
also,  but  this  only  the  more  far-sighted  of  the  Southerners 
could  see.  The  mass  of  them  saw  only  that  an  institution 
bequeathed  to  them  by  their  fathers  and,  as  they  believed, 
essential  to  their  comfort  and  prosperity,  was  being  assailed 

1  Born  in  Boston,  1811;  died,  1884.  Graduated  at  Harvard  1831;  became  a 
lawyer,  but  from  1837  gave  his  chief  energies  to  the  abolition  movement ;  was 
the  most  eloquent  and  effective  advocate  of  the  cause  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  war ;  ardent  advocate  of  temperance  reform  and  of  woman  suffrage ; 
sided  with  the  Greenback  party. 


WENDELL  PHILLIPS. 


§361]  FINANCIAL  DISTURBANCES.  283 

by  men  who,  as  a  rule,  had  had  little  close  contact  with  it.  In 
consequence,  they  naturally  made  the  best  resistance  they 
could.  They  would  have  been  more  than  human  if  they  had 
not  resisted,  but  it  must  be  confessed  that  their  speeches 
and  actions  were  often  so  extreme  in  character  as  to  defeat 
their  ends.  On  the  other  hand,  the  abolitionists  were  partly 
responsible,  in  their  turn,  for  the  extreme  stand  taken  by  the 
Southerners,  for  they  were  very  intemperate  in  their  strictures. 
Because  they  abhorred  slavery,  they  thought  it  logical  to  abhor 
slaveholders  and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which 
permitted  slavery.  They  were  opposed  to  all  efforts  to  settle 
the  slavery  question  by  political  action.  They  upheld  every 
kind  of  reform,  no  matter  how  extreme,  and  were  continually 
at  loggerheads  among  themselves.  In  other  words,  they  were 
impractical,  and  their  methods  in  the  early  years  of  the  agita 
tion  were  abhorrent  to  the  average  American  citizen.  Never 
theless,  they  aroused  the  public  conscience  on  the  subject  of 
slavery,  and,  as  leaders  of  a  crusade,  their  most  influential 
members,  men  and  women,  have  perhaps  never  been  surpassed. 

FINANCIAL   DISTURBANCES. 

361.  Jackson  and  the  Bank.  —  Meanwhile  Jackson,  though  on 
the  whole  a  Southern  sympathizer,  had  a  battle  of  his  own  to 
fight '  that  interested  him  far  more  than  the  slavery  contest. 
He  had  an  agriculturist's  suspicion  of  capitalists,  and  in  par 
ticular  saw  in  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  a  greedy  monopoly 
worked  in  the  interests  of  his  political  enemies.1  Accordingly 
he  early  declared  war  against  that  institution,  which  was  at 
that  time  in  good  condition.  Henry  Clay,  his  chief  rival,  took 
up  the  issue,  and  in  1832  had  a  bill  passed  for  rechartering  the 
corporation.  Jackson  at  once  vetoed  it,  and  the  country  sus 
tained  him  in  the  campaign  of  1832,  in  which  Henry  Clay,  as 

1  The  former  Adams  men  and  the  adherents  of  Clay,  who  shortly  after  this 
time  took  the  name  of  the  patriotic  party  in  the  Revolution  and  called  them 
selves  "Whigs." 


284     JACKSON'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  1833-1837.     [§362 

candidate  of  the  National  Kepublicans,1  and  William  Wirt  as 
candidate  of  the  short-lived  party  known  as  the  Anti-Masons,8 
were  ignominiously  defeated. 

362.  Removal  of  the  Deposits.  —  Encouraged  by  the  popular 
support  he  had  received,  and  believing  firmly,  and  rightly,  it 
would  seem,  that  the  bank  was  a  dangerous  monopoly,  Jackson 
now  resolved  to  deal  it  a  crushing  blow.     He  secured,  after 
some  trouble,  a  cooperating  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Eoger 
B.  Taney  of  Maryland,  and  through  him  had  an  order  given  for 
the  withdrawal  of  the  deposits  of  public  money  in  the  bank 
and  its  branches.3    This  move  might  under  other  circumstances 
have  been  a  wise  one,  but  it  was  made  in  an  impolitic  manner ; 
and  by  crippling  the  bank  at  a  period  when  the  nation  was  car 
ried  away  by  a  craze  for  speculation,  it  probably  helped  to 
pave  the  way  for  the  great  financial  panic  of  1837.     It  also 
brought  upon  Jackson  a  vote  of  censure  by  the  Seriate,  which 
he  answered  in  a  vigorous  protest,  and  which  his  friends  later, 
under  the  lead  of  Benton,  by  a  rather  farcical  procedure  suc 
ceeded  in  expunging  from  the  Senate  Journal. 

363.  Censure  of  Jackson's  Action.  —  Few  actions  of  an  Amer 
ican  President  have  been  more  harshly  criticised  than  that 
of  Jackson  toward  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  but  it  cost 
him  little  of  his  popularity  with  the  masses,  because  they,  like 
himself,  were  suspicious  of  corporate    wealth.      The  wealthy 


1  Before  taking  the  name  "  Whig,"  the  party  that  favored  protection,  inter 
nal  improvements,  and  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution  generally,  took 
part  of  the  name  of  the  Democratic-Republican  party  that  was  in  power  from 
Jefferson  to  Jackson,  and  called  themselves  National  Republicans.    The  Jack 
son  men,  on  the  other  hand,  took  the  first  half  of  the  name,  which  was  dis 
tinctly  appropriate  to  them.     The  Democratic  party  thus  formed  has  been  in 
existence  ever  since,  with  considerable  changes,  however.    The  Whigs,  as  will 
be  seen,  are  represented  to-day  by  the  Republican  party. 

2  This  party  was  formed  against  the  Free  Masons,  chiefly  in  consequence  of 
the  report,  not  confirmed,  of  the  killing  in  1826  of  a  man  named  William  Mor 
gan,  who  had  exposed  certain  secrets  of  the  order. 

3  By  law  the  Secretary  had  to  give  the  order,  and  Jackson  compelled  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Duaue,  who  would  not  give  it. 


§  364]  FINANCIAL   DISTURBANCES.  285 

classes,  however,  denounced  him  freely,  and  with  some  reason. 
The  changes  necessitated  in  his  Cabinet  in  order  that  his  wishes 
might  be  carried  out  suited  rather  a  self-willed  sovereign  like 
Louis  XIV.  than  the  constitutional  executive  of  a  republic.  The 
vindictiveness  with  which  he  pursued  his  policy  was  appropriate 
to  a  small,  rather  than  a  great,  man.  Besides,  the  whole  matter 
was  one  for  financiers  to  manage,  and  Jackson  knew  more  of 
fighting  than  he  did  of  finance.  Nor  was  popular  acquiescence 
in  his  policy  a  sure  indication  of  its  wisdom.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  president  of  the  bank,  Nicholas  Biddle,  of  Phila 
delphia,  acted  with  indiscretion  and  injured  his  own  cause. 
Clay  also  was  premature  in  forcing  the  issue  and  had  a  partisan 
purpose  in  doing  it.  The  bank  had  years  before  been  grossly  mis 
managed  (§  317,  note)  and  might  be  so  again ;  and  when  its  exist 
ence  was  threatened,  it  used  money  in  politics.  Moreover,  after- 
its  charter  expired,  its  career  under  the  laws  of  Pennsylvania 
was  discreditable.  Taking  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  we 
are  perhaps  justified  in  concluding  that  Jackson's  methods  of 
procedure  deserve  great  censure  in  spite  of  his  integrity,  but 
that  what  he  actually  did  was  not  nearly  so  detrimental  to  the 
interests  of  the  country  as  some  persons  have  considered  it. 

364.  Banks  and  Speculation. —  But  the  end  was  not  yet.  The 
funds  removed  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  were  deposited 
in  state  banks,  controlled  by  Democrats,  and  afterwards  known 
as  "  Jackson's  Pets."  This  governmental  favor  caused  the 
numbers  of  such  banks  to  increase,  and  thus  stimulated  the  uni 
versal  desire  to  indulge  in  financial  speculation.  The  public  reve 
nues  meanwhile  increased  through  speculation  in  public  lands 
and  through  larger  imports,  and  as  the  national  debt  had  been 
paid  off  shortly  before,  it  was  hard  to  decide  what  to  do  with 
the  accumulated  funds.  An  outlet  for  this  surplus  was  found 
in  non-interest-bearing  loans  to  the  states  in  proportion  to  their 
representation  in  Congress.  This  distribution  of  the  surplus  — 
a  favorite  project  of  Clay's  and  destined  later  to  complicate  the 
financial  situation  still  more  seriously  —  increased  the  tendency 


286    JACKSON'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  1833-1837.     [§365 

toward  extravagant  internal  improvements,  and  thus  fed  the 
fever  for  speculation  which,  as  we  have  just  said,  both  supported 
and  was  supported  by  a  loose  system  of  banking  under  state 
control. 

365.  Wild-cat  Banks.  — The  "Wild-cat  Banks,"  as  the  banks 
established  under  this  system  were  called,  were  especially  numer 
ous  in  the  South  and  West,  and  their  paper  notes  were  of  such 
varying  values  that  the  public  suffered  great  inconvenience.1 
Journals  were  published  for  the  special  purpose  of  reporting 
from  day  to  day  the  value  of  the  various  issues  and  for  the  pur 
pose  of  pointing  out  how  traders  could  avoid  being  deceived  by 
the  numerous  counterfeits.     There  was  a  legitimate  demand  for 
an  increase  of  the  circulating  medium,  and  the  government  had 
tried  to  meet  this  by  enlarging  the  output  of  gold  and  silver 
coins  and  by  arranging  for  notes  to  be  issued  by  the  deposit 
banks  on  a  specie  reserve  of  one  third  of  their  circulation.    But 
these  measures  were  not  sufficient.     The  states  chartered  banks 
recklessly,  and  the  banks,  issued  their  notes  in  wild  profusion. 

366.  The  u  Specie  Circular." — Jackson  became  alarmed,  since 
the  notes  of  even  the  specie-paying  banks  received   by   the 
Treasury  for  the  purchase  of  public  lands  were  declining  in 
value.    He  therefore  issued  his  famous  "  Specie  Circular,"  which 
announced,  against  the  advice  of  the  Cabinet,  that  thenceforth 
only  gold  and  silver  would  be  received  in  payment  for  public 
lands.     This  order  naturally  affected  the  banks  in  the  West 
disastrously,  forced  back  a  mass  of  notes  upon  the  East,  and 
induced  a  general  want  of  confidence,  which  was  all  the  greater 
on  account  of  the  previous  speculative  want  of  caution. 

367.  Election  of  Van  Buren. — Jackson,  like  Jefferson,  however, 
was  fortunate  enough  to  lay  down  his  office  in  time  to  leave  his 
successor  to  meet  the  impending  storm.     That  successor  was 

1  Sometimes  men  would  start  a  bank  in  a  small  town,  fail  there,  and  then 
move  to  another  town  not  far  off  and  play  the  same  trick.  A  contemporaneous 
invention,  the  telegraph,  was  destined  to  do  much  for  the  detection  and  appre 
hension  of  such  rogues. 


§  367]  FINANCIAL  DISTURBANCES.  287 

Martin  Van  Buren,  who  by  the  irony  of  fate  had  helped  his  chief 
to  secure  two  of  his  greatest  successes.  These  were  the  opening 
of  the  ports  of  the  British  West  Indies  to  American  ships,  and 
the  acknowledgment  by  France  of  the  justice  of  the  French 
spoliation  claims,  which  were  based  on  depredations  committed 
on  American  commerce  during  the  Napoleonic  regime.1  Still, 
Van  Buren  partly  deserved  his  fate,  for  he  had  been  subservient 
to  Jackson  and  had  succeeded  him  on  the  distinct  pledge  that  he 
would  follow  in  his  footsteps.  He  was  the  first  real  politician 
to  reach  the  White  House,  but  he  had  statesmanly  qualities 
also.  If  he  had  not  bound  himself  to  Jackson  so  closely  that 
he  was  often  forced  to  act  against  his  own  judgment,  he  would 
probably  rank  among  the  greatest  Presidents.  But  adherence 
to  Jackson's  policy  —  for  example,  in  the  bullying  attitude  as 
sumed  toward  Mexico  on  account  of  Texas — undoubtedly  hurt 
his  career  and  perhaps  his  conscience.  Still,  Jackson  had  stood 
by  him  after  the  Senate  had  unjustifiably  failed  to  confirm  his 
appointment  to  the  English  mission;  and,  first  as  Vice  Presi 
dent,  afterward  as  President,  he  had  great  cause  to  bless  "Old 
Hickory's"  friendship. 


REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  see  Chapter  XVIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XX.,  except  the  two  books  men 
tioned  last.  See  also  lives  of  leading  abolitionists,  —  Birney,  Wendell 
Phillips,  etc.,  especially  the  biography  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  written 
by  his  children,  and  A.  H.  Stephens,  War  Between  the  States;  Jefferson 
Davis,  The  Else  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government. 

1  Jackson's  vigorous  policy  toward  France  almost  brought  on  a  war  with 
that  country. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

THE    ADMINISTRATIONS    OF   VAN   BUREN   AND    OP 
HARRISON   AND  TYLER,  1837-1845. 

A  PERIOD   OF  CONFUSION. 

368.  New  Parties. — Martin  Van  Buren  won  the  election  of 
1836  as  a  Democ»at,  for  Jackson's  party,  as  we  have  seen,  had 
dropped  the  word  "Republican  "  from  their  name  (§  361,  note  1). 
His  opponent  had  been  William  Henry  Harrison  of  Indiana,  a 
man  long  prominent  in  his  section  (§§  299,  302,  305).    Harrison 
was  the  nominee  of  the  Whigs,  but  the  real  leaders  of  the  latter 
party  were  Clay  and  Webster.    The  chief  bond  of  union  binding 
the  two  leaders  and  their  followers  together  was  their  desire  for 
a  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution  and  for  a  strong  cen 
tral  government.     The  Whigs  were  soon  destined  to  develop 
strength  in  every  section,  even  in  the  South. 

369.  The  Independent  Treasury. — Van  Buren  and  the  Demo 
crats  were  destined  soon  to  lose 'the  strength  they  began  with. 
The  panic  of  1837  greatly  injured  business,  and  then,  as  they 
have  so  often  since  done,  men  blamed  the  central  government  for 
a  state  of  things  for  which  it  was  only  partly  responsible.    Banks 
failed  in  every  direction  and  prices  went  up  enormously,  flour 
and  corn  more  than  doubling  in  cost.     The  President  called  an 
extra  session  of  Congress  to  consider  the  situation,  but  had  little 
to  propose  besides  insisting  on  the  policy  of  the  "  Specie  Cir 
cular  "  and  on  divorcing  the  government  from  the  banks.     The 
latter  policy,  known  as  the  Independent  Treasury  system  or 
Sub-Treasury,  was  finally  carried  through  in  1840.     With  a 
slight  intermission,  it  has  been  the  policy  of  the  nation  ever 

288 


§  370]  A  PERIOD   OF   CONFUSION.  289 

since.     Its  main  features  are  the  receipt  and  disbursement  of 
government  funds  at  vaults  built  in  a  few  of  the  chief  cities. 

370.  Van  Buren's  Failure.  —  The  administration's  policy  did 
little  to  mend  matters,  and  the  people  rightly  or  wrongly  attrib 
uted  most  of  the  financial  troubles  of  the  time  to  Jackson's 
meddling  with  the  banks.  They  accordingly  listened  to  the 
Whigs,  who  believed  in  a  national  bank  in  particular  and  in 
discrediting  the  Democrats  in  general.  To  make  matters  worse 
for  Van  Buren,  the  spoils  system  began  to  show  its  seamy  side, 
and  he  was  accused  of  all  its  evils,  unjustly,  on  the  whole.  He 
was  also  charged  with  living  in  luxury  while  the  poor  were  starv 
ing,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  panic  was  almost  menaced  by  a  mob 
in  the  White  House  grounds.  Furthermore,  he  alienated  many 
persons  by  not  siding  with  the  Canadian  revolutionists  of  1837, 
and  by  not  encouraging  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  had 
revolted  from  Mexico  in  1836.  Even  the  Seminole  War,1  con 
tinued  for  several  years  against  the  Indians  of  Florida,  was 
charged  against  him ;  and,  in  1840,  although  he  had  on  the  whole 

1  This  war,  which  originated  in  the  attempt  of  the  general  government  to 
transfer  the  Florida  Indians  beyond  the  Mississippi  River,  lasted  seven  years 
(1835-1842),  and  cost  many  lives  and  millions  of  dollars.  It  was  easy  to  dis 
perse  the  savages  in  open  fight,  hut  when  they  took  to  the  swamps,  soldiers 
were  almost  useless,  and  the  best  generals  tried  their  skill  in  vain.  Finally, 
after  much  damage  had  been  done  by  the  banditti,  so  that  immigration 
into  Florida  was  greatly  checked,  the  policy  of  giving  lands  to  settlers  who 
would  carry  arms  to  defend  themselves  was  tried  successfully.  The  leading 
spirit  of  the  Seminoles  was  Osceola,  an  able  warrior,  who  was  finally  cap 
tured  while  he  was  holding  a  conference  under  a  flag  of  truce.  It  was  asserted 
that  he  did  not  respect  his  own  engagements,  and  that  this  was  the  only  way 
to  take  him,  but  one  does  not  like  to  dwell  upon  the  occurrence.  Shortly 
before,  an  Indian  war,  known  as  the  Black  Hawk  War,  from  the  name  of  the 
chief  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  tribes  who  conducted  it,  had  been  brought  to  a  con 
clusion  after  a  considerable  amount  of  fighting.  This  war,  like  that  with  the 
Seminoles,  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  remove  across  the 
Mississippi  the  tribes  lingering  in  Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  Some  of  the  Indians 
went  peaceably,  but  Black  Hawk,  who  had  previously  come  under  the  influ 
ence  of  Tecumseh,  induced  many  warriors  to  resist.  Finally,  in  the  summer 
of  1832,  the  regular  troops  of  the  United  States  defeated  them  on  the  Wiscon 
sin  and  the  Bad  Axe  rivers,  and  Black  Hawk  and  his  two  sons,  with  a  few 
warriors,  were  taken  to  Fortress  Monroe  and  there  confined  for  a  short  period. 


290  VAN  BUREN,    HARRISON,    TYLER,    1837-1845.        [§371 

governed  well,  he  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  General  Har 
rison  in  a  campaign  conducted  on  sensational  lines. 

371.  Campaign  of  1840.  —  Although  Harrison  was  a  Whig, 
the   candidate   for  Vice  President  who  was   associated  with 

him,  John  Tyler 
of  Virginia,  was 
chosen  chiefly  be 
cause  he  had 
opposed  Jackson. 
He  was  really  a 
Jeffersonian  Dem 
ocrat,  not  a  Whig. 
Principles  were 
little  in  demand, 
the  voters  being 
satisfied  with  spec 
tacular  dern  on  stra- 
tions.  In  their 
torchlight  proces 
sions  they  carried 
around  large  log 
cabins  with  men 
in  front  drinking 

cider  —  visible  in- 
WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON.  .       .        „  ,,       _ 

sigma  of  the  fron 
tiersmen,  to  which  class  Harrison  was  supposed  to  belong. 
They  also  shouted  their  campaign  refrain  of  "Tippecanoe 
and  Tyler  too"  (§  299),  and  they  held  monster  meetings  in 
the  open  air.  No  campaign  in  American  history  has  been 
more  marked  by  noisy,  unreasoning  enthusiasm  than  this. 

THE   EMBARRASSMENTS   OF   THE   WHIGS. 

372.  Tyler's  Position.  —  General  Harrison  l  was  an  old  man, 
and  proved  unable  to  bear  the  strain  of  his  campaign,  the  pres- 

i  Born  in  Virginia,  1773;  died,  1841.    Graduated  at  Hampden   Sidney  Col 
lege;  fought  under  Wayne,  1794;  secretary  of  Northwest  Territory  in  1798; 


§  373]          THE   EMBARRASSMENTS   OF  THE   WHIGS.  291 

sure  of  office  seekers,  and  the  ceremonies  attending  his  inaugura 
tion.  He  died  exactly  one  month  after  taking  office,  and  left  his 
party  in  great  confusion.  Vice  President  John  Tyler,  his  suc 
cessor,  did  not  believe  in  the  Whig  policy  of  loose  construction, 
and  was  a  Democrat  in  all  except  a  few  particulars.  He  soon 
showed  his  colors  by  vetoing  Clay's  bill  for  a  national  bank,  and 
then  vetoing  a  second  bill  framed  on  suggestions  of  his  own. 
He  was  accused  of  bad  faith,  but  was  doubtless  only  in  a  false 
position  and  anxious  to  assert  a  policy  of  his  own  that  might 
put  him  at  the  head  of  a  party.  His  vetoes,  however,  made  the 
Whigs  his  deadly  enemies  and  caused  all  his  Cabinet  to  resign 
except  Webster.  The  latter,  as  Secretary  of  State,  remained  to 
settle  with  the  British  Minister,  Lord  Ashburton,  in  the  treaty 
that  bears  the  latter's  name  (1842),  the  disputed  northeastern 
boundary  and  certain  points  connected  with  the  suppression 
of  the  African  slave  trade.1 

373.  The  Lesson  of  Tyler's  Career.  —  John  Tyler 2  was  the  first 
Vice  President  to  reach  the  White  House  through  the  death 
of  his  superior.  His  behavior  in  the  higher  office  should  have 
taught  the  people  of  the  United  States  a  lesson  as  to  the  neces 
sity  of  choosing  highly  qualified  candidates  for  the  Vice 
Presidential  office.  The  career  of  Andrew  Johnson  proves 
that  they  had  not  learned  this  lesson  in  1864.  The  old 

governor  of  Indiana  Territory  in  1800 ;  won  victory  of  Tippecanoe  in  1811 ;  was 
major  general  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  extended  his  reputation  by  defeating 
Proctor  and  Tecumseh  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames ;  congressman,  1816-1819 ; 
United  States  senator,  1825-1828 ;  Minister  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
1828-1829;  defeated  by  Van  Buren  for  Presidency  in  1836;  elected  in  1840. 

1  A.  P.  Upshur  of  Virginia  succeeded  Webster  as  Secretary  of  State,  but 
was  killed,  along  with  several  other  prominent  men,  by  the  bursting  of  a  gun 
on  the  Princeton  in  1844. 

2  Born  in  Virginia,  1790 ;  died,  1862.   Graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
1806 ;  congressman,  1816-1821 ;  governor  of  Virginia,  1825-1827 ;  United  States 
senator,  1827-1836 ;  opposed  the  Democrats  on  several  points,  and  thus  won  a 
place  on  the  Whig  ticket  with  Harrison  in  1840 ;  after  Harrison's  death,  called 
an  extra  session  of  Congress,  and  at  once  showed  that  he  was  still  in  general 
accord  with  the  Democrats,  who  had  voted  against  him ;  was  nominated  for 
President  in  1844  by  a  small  body  of  adherents,  but  did  not  run  against  Polk ; 
retired  in  1845;  was  president  of  the  Peace  Convention  in  1861. 


292  VAN  BUREN,   HARRISON,   TYLER,   1837-1845.        [§373 


system  by  which  the  candidate  receiving  the  second  highest 
number  of  electoral  votes  became  Vice  President  had  its  draw 
backs,  but  it  at  least  gave  the  country  such  Vice  Presidents  as 
John  Adams  and  Jefferson.  Under  the  new  system  the  office 

has  been  too  often 
given  to  a  can 
didate  possessing 
political  influence 
or  to  a  good  man 
so  old  as  to  be 
likely  to  die  be 
fore  the  expira 
tion  of  his  term. 
It  follows  that 
Tyler  is  not  so 
much  to  blame 
for  his  mistakes 
as  the  people  who 
put  him  where 
he  was  sure  to 
go  astray.  He 
was  an  honest 
and  amiable  man, 
who  by  no  means 
lacked  capacity. 

He  helped  Webster  in  the  Ashburton  Treaty.  He  behaved 
with  discretion  during  what  is  known  as  "Dorr's  Rebellion" 
in  Rhode  Island1  (1841-1842).  But,  on  the  whole,  Tyler  was 
lacking  in  discretion  and  was  unable  to  take  the  lead  in  public 
matters.  He  did  not  believe  in  a  national  bank  and  was  per 
haps  right  in  not  doing  so ;  but  if  he  had  been  wise,  he  would 

1  A  clash  that  almost  led  to  civil  war  came  between  the  advocates  of  a  new 
constitution,  who  tried  to  make  Thomas  W.  Dorr  governor,  and  the  supporters 
of  the  old  illiberal  instrument  which  greatly  restricted  the  franchise.  Dorr 
was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  1844,  but  was  released 
three  years  later. 


JOHN  TYLER. 


§374] 


TEXAS   AND  OREGON. 


293 


have  said  so  plainly  and  thus  prevented  the  Whigs  passing 
bills  that  he  was  sure  to  veto.  He  vetoed  other  measures  be 
sides  the  bank  bills  and  perhaps  again  was  in  the  right ;  but 
the  main  result  of  his  actions  was  to  earn  for  him  the  distrust 
both  of  the  Whigs  and  of  the  Democrats.  His  attempt  to  form 
a  party  of  his  own  was  a  complete  failure. 

TEXAS  AND  OREGON. 

374.  The  Texas  Question.  —  The  congressional  election  at  the 
middle  of  Tyler's  term,  while  adverse  to  the  Whigs,  did  not  help 
him.  The  second  half 
of  his  administration 
was  therefore  even 
more  wanting  in  har 
mony  and  effective 
ness  than  the  first. 
The  chief  question 
put  forward  was  the 
admission  of  Texas, 
which  the  President, 
as  a  Southern  man 
and  a  sympathizer 
with  slavery,  natur 
ally  favored.  Al 
though  Mexico  had 
not  recognized  her 
independence,  Texas 
had  now  been  a  re 
public  ever  since 
General  Samuel 
Houston 1  had  de 
feated  the  Mexican 
leader,  Santa  Anna,  at  San  Jacinto  on  April  21, 1836.  The  lead 
ing  Texans  were  Americans,  however,  and  desired  annexation, 

iBorn,  1793;   died,  1863.     Fought  bravely  in  the  Creek  War,  1813-1814; 
congressman  from  Tennessee,  1823-1827;  governor  of  Tennessee,  1827-1829; 


GENERAL  SAMUEL  HOUSTON. 


294  VAN   BUREN,    HARRISON,    TYLER,    1837-1845.        [§  375 

but  this  would  mean  not  only  war  with  Mexico,  but  also  a  huge 
increase  of  territory  for  slavery.  Accordingly  Northern  men 
shrank  from  allowing  the  annexation  of  the  sparsely  populated 
region.  Anti-slavery  sentiments  were  growing,  and  such  able 
men  as  Joshua  R.  Giddings  of  Ohio  were  championing  them 
in  Congress.  But  the  Southerners  were  alert  also,  especially 
Calhoun,  who  became  Tyler's  Secretary  of  State  toward  the 
end  of  his  term.  Calhoun  feared  that  England  was  anxious 
to  secure  Texas  ;  besides,  he  felt  that  slavery  must  spread 
or  be  crushed  out.  It  was  not  hard  to  induce  Tyler  to  join 
in  negotiations  with  the  Texans,  and  in  April,  1844,  a  treaty 
of  annexation,  secretly  prepared,  was  announced.  It  was  de 
feated  in  the  Senate  by  a  large  vote,  but  was  taken  up  as  the 
chief  issue  of  the  next  campaign. 

375 .  The  Campaign  of  1 844.  —  The  Whigs  put  up  Clay,  and  the 
Democrats  chose  James  K.  Polk 1  of  Tennessee,  since  Van  Buren 
would  not  advocate  annexation.  Polk,  although  he  had  been 
previously  Speaker  of  the  House,  was  not  very  well  known  and 
had  aspired  only  to  the  Vice  Presidency.  He  was  therefore 
really  the  first  "  dark  horse  "  to  receive  a  presidential  nomina 
tion.  Clay,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  veteran  statesman,  the 
natural  nominee  of  his  party.  But  Clay  unfortunately  wrote 
letters  that  made  his  position  on  the  Texas  question  ambig 
uous  ;  he  therefore  lost  the  support  of  many  anti-slavery 
men,  who,  as  the  "  Liberty  Party,"  put  up  a  candidate  of  their 
own.  Polk  was  accordingly  elected  over  a  competitor  much 

migrated  to  Texas,  and  was  president  of  Constitutional  Convention,  1833 ;  as 
commander  in  chief  secured  the  independence  of  Texas ;  President  of  Texas, 
1836-1838,  and  1841-1844;  after  securing  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
United  States,  represented  the  state  in  Congress  from  1845  to  1859;  elected 
governor  in  1859;  resigned  in  1861,  refusing  to  espouse  the  Confederate  cause. 
1  Born  in  North  Carolina,  1795;  died,  1849.  Graduated  at  North  Carolina 
University;  migrated  to  Tennessee;  congressman,  1825-1829;  Speaker  of 
the  House,  1835-1839 ;  Governor  of  Tennessee,  1839-1841 ;  was  elected  Presi 
dent  over  Clay,  1844;  favored  the  Mexican  War;  settled  the  Oregon  contro 
versy;  approved  the  "Walker  Tariff,"  and  vetoed  the  river  and  harbor  bills 
of  1846  and  1847. 


§376]  TEXAS  AND  OREGON.  295 

his  superior.  But  before  the  newly  elected  President  took  his 
seat,  Tyler  had  secured  the  annexation  of  Texas  by  the  passage 
of  a  joint  resolution  through  Congress.1 

376.  The  Oregon  Question.  —  Along  with  the  Texas  question 
the  Democrats  had  made  the  question  of  the  occupation  of 
Oregon  a  cardinal  issue  in  their  campaign.  Their  success  led 
them  to  claim  that  the  United  States  must  have  all  the  terri 
tory  lying  south  of  54°  40',  "  or  fight."  This  demand  was  in 
every  sense  a  rash  one,  and  might  easily  have  brought  on  war 
with  Great  Britain,  but  it  fortunately  led  to  no  evil  results. 
In  1846  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  fixed  the  American 
northern  line  at  the  49°  parallel,  and  only  Mexico  was  left  to 
contend  against. 

REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XVIII. 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  same,  in  the  main,  as  for  Chapters  XX.  and  XXI.,  with 
the  addition  of  :  J.  T.  Curtis,  James  Buchanan  ;  L.  G.  Tyler,  Letters  and 
Times  of  the  Tylers;  H.  A.  Wise,  Seven  Decades  of  the  Union;  B.  Wise, 
The  Life  of  Henry  A.  Wise  of  Virginia;  II.  II .  Bancroft,  Oregon  ("Pa 
cific  States,"  Vols.  XXIV.-XXV.)  ;  William  Barrows,  Oregon  ("Ameri 
can  Commonwealths")  ;  A.  M.  Williams,  Sam  Houston;  II.  Yoakum, 
History  of  Texas. 

1  Tyler  and  Calhoun  had  at  first  thought  that  the  passage  of  a  treaty  which 
would  require  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate,  was  the  proper  method  of  an 
nexation.  On  the  failure  of  this  treaty  they  took  up  a  suggestion  made  during 
the  congressional  debates  and  pressed  the  passage  of  a  joint  resolution,  which 
required  only  a  majority  of  both  houses.  Such  a  change  was  especially  curi 
ous  on  the  part  of  strict  coustructiouists. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK,  1845-1849. 

THE  OPENING  OF  THE  MEXICAN  WAR. 

377.  The  Issues  Involved.  —  As  a  Mexican  state,  Texas  had 
extended  on  the  south  and  west  to  the  river  Nueces ;  but  her 
inhabitants  and  the  United  States  insisted  on  holding  to 
boundaries  based  on  the  Louisiana  Purchase  and  on  claiming 
the  "  country  between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande."  The 
Mexicans  resisted  this  claim ;  and  when  Polk  ordered  General 
Taylor  to  cross  the  Nueces,  and  later  to  advance  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  they  attacked  and  defeated  a  small  body  of  the  Amer 
ican  troops  (April  24,  184G).  Polk  at  once  sent  a  message  to 
Congress,  in  which  he  declared  that  war  existed,  "  through  the 
act  of  Mexico  herself."  This  statement  was,  on  the  whole,  un 
warranted,  although  a  technical  defense  was  easily  made  for  it. 
It  was  really  a  case  of  a  strong  nation's  bullying  a  weak  one  ; 
and,  as  we  have  seen  (§  353),  the  bullying  had  begun  under 
Jackson  and  had  been  steadily  carried  on.  But  Congress,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  people,  especially  in  the  South, 
accepted  Polk's  proposition,  and  the  war  was  effectively  prose 
cuted.  Its  results  were  probably  beneficial,  in  the  main,  since 
the  territory  was  sure  to  become  American  some  day ;  but  its 
origin  is  not  a  pleasant  topic  for  the  patriotic  American  to 
dwell  upon.  Nor  is  it  by  any  means  certain  that  the  Civil 
War  was  not  in  large  part  precipitated  by  that  against  Mexico. 
The  latter  contest  gave  the  South  a  taste  for  fighting  that  was 
not  altogether  a  warrant  for  the  future  calm  of  that  section ; 
and  the  additional  territory  acquired  by  the  Union  opened  a 
new  and  disastrous  phase  of  the  slavery  question  (§§  388,  411). 

296 


TERRITORY  CLAIMED 
BY  TEXAS 


WHEN  ADMITTED  INTO  THE  UNION  *« 


To  face  p.  296. 


378] 


THE   OPENING   OF  THE   MEXICAN  WAK. 


297 


378.  Conduct  of  the  Administration.  —  Senator  Benton  was 
probably  right  when  he  claimed,  in  his  Thirty  Years7  View, 
that  there  never  was  a  less  warlike  administration  than  that  of 
Polk.  Polk  was  thoroughly  upright  and  pious,  but  was  scarcely 
broad-minded.  He  took  his  seat  with  the  intention  of 
carrying  out  a  programme  the  main  feature  of  which  was  the 
acquisition  of  Califor 
nia.  This  programme 
he  carried  out  to  the 
letter,  partly  because 
it  was  a  popular  one, 
partly  because  he  had 
considerable  adminis 
trative  skill.  Owing 
in  the  main  to  the 
discretion  of  Great 
Britain,  war  was 
averted  with  that 
power  (§  376),  and 
Polk  could  point  to  a 
very  valuable  addi 
tion  of  territory  in 
the  extreme  North 
west,  into  which  pop 
ulation  was  already 
pouring.  Tyler  had 
forestalled  him  with 
regard  to  annexing  Texas ;  but  Polk  could  at  least  see  to  it  that 
Texas  reached  the  Rio  Grande,  and  that  the  United  States  thus 
recovered  territory  which  some  persons  believed  to  have  been 
imprudently  abandoned  by  Monroe  in  his  negotiations  with 
Spain  (§  324).  Yet  to  extend  the  bounds  of  Texas  and,  what 
was  more  important,  to  acquire  Upper  California,  would  neces 
sitate  a  war  with  Mexico,  and  for  this  Polk  and  his  well-chosen 
Cabinet  were  prepared.  They  wanted  only  a  short  war,  how 
ever,  and  trusted  to  diplomacy  and  money  to  secure  them  the 


JAMES  K.  POLK. 


298          THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   POLK,    1345-1849.         [§  379 

territory  that  would  give  the  United  States  a  clear  sweep  to 
the  Pacific.  Hence  much  of  Folk's  warlike  attitude  was 
hollow.  His  main  purpose  was  to  obtain  money  from  Congress 
with  which  to  buy  territory,  and  by  diplomatic  means  to  induce 
Mexico  to  sell.  He  actually  restored  to  his  native  land  the 
exiled  Mexican  general,  Santa  Anna,  hoping  that  the  latter 
would,  in  gratitude,  make  a  speedy  peace.  But  the  sly  adven 
turer  induced  his  countrymen  to  fight  the  harder  ;  and  although 
California  and  New  Mexico  were  taken  by  the  Americans  with 
out  a  real  struggle,  peace  with  Mexico,  and  her  acquiescence  in 
the  results  of  the  war,  could  be  obtained  only  after  long  and 
costly  campaigns.  Moreover,  these  campaigns  entailed  a  polit 
ical  result  discouraging  to  Polk  and  the  Democrats. 

379.  Ambitions  of  Scott  and  Taylor.  —  The  leading  soldier  in 
the  United  States  was  General  Winfield  Scott,  the  hero  of 
Lundy's  Lane  (§  309).  Military  success  in  a  republic  gener 
ally  brings  civil  honors;  and  Scott  was  a  Whig,  with  his 
eyes  already  on  the  Presidency.  A  Democratic  administration 
could  not  bring  itself  to  give  Scott  a  chance  to  distinguish 
himself,  and  for  some  time  he  was  detained  at  Washington ; 
but  his  subordinate,  General  Zachary  Taylor,i  who  was  at 
first  given  command  (§  377),  was  also  Whig  in  his  sympathies. 
Such  being  the  case,  various  expedients  were  suggested ;  it  was 
even  intended  to  give  Senator  Beiiton  supreme  command,  he 
being  a  g<~od  Democrat  and  a  colonel  of  the  War  of  1812.  But 
all  schemes  failed.  Scott  was  finally  sent  to  the  front,  and- 
Taylor  (§  389)  captured  the  Whig  nomination  for  the  Presi 
dency  (1848).  Such  are  some  of  the  intrigues  that  the  his 
torian  finds  behind  the  Mexican  War.  It  is  little  wonder  that 

1  Born  in  Virginia,  1784 ;  died,  1850.  Appointed  first  lieutenant  in  the  army, 
1808 ;  fought  in  the  War  of  1812,  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  and  in  the  war  against 
the  Seminoles ;  was  ordered  to  the  disputed  territory  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  War,  where  his  numerous  victories  made  him  a  national  hero  ;  was 
nominated  for  President  over  such  competitors  as  Clay  and  Webster,  in  1848, 
and  was  elected  by  a  large  majority;  died  before  the  Compromise  of  1850  was 
adopted. 


§  380]       THE    CONDUCT  AND   RESULTS   OF  THE    WAR.       299 


the  Whigs  —  including  old  statesmen  like  Webster,  and  new 
statesmen  like  Abraham  Lincoln  of  Illinois,  who  was  serving 
his  only  term  as  congressman — should  have  denounced  the 
contest  as  wrong  in  itself  and  as  prosecuted  in  the  interests  of 
the  slaveholders  and  land  grabbers  of  the  country.  It  is  little 
wonder,  too,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  Mexican  War  does  not 
live  in  popular  imagination  as  a  heroic  struggle  (§  377). 

THE  CONDUCT  AND  RESULTS  OF  THE  WAR. 

380.  Taylor's  Victories.  —  Whatever  we  may  think  of  the 
causes  of  the  Mexican  War  and  of  the  conduct  of  the  American 
authorities,  there  can 
be  but  one  opinion  as 
to  the  valor  with  which 
officers  and  troops 
conducted  themselves 
after  hostilities  had 
begun.  Taylor  received 
notice  from  the  Mexi 
can  general,  Arista,  on 
April  24,  1846,  that 
his  occupation  of  the 
northern  branch  of  the 
Rio  Grande  meant 
war.  On  the  same 
day  the  first  American 
blood  was  shed.  It 
was  avenged  shortly ; 
for,  on  May  8,  Taylor 
met  about  six  thou 
sand  Mexicans  at  Palo 
Alto,  and  defeated 

them     severely      with  GENERAL  ZACHARY  TAYLOR. 

his  own  small  force  of 

about  two  thousand.     The  next  day  he  won  another  complete 

victory  at  Kesaca  de  la  Palma,  and  drove  the  enemy  across  the 


300          THE    ADMINISTRATION   OF   POLK,    1845-1849.         [§  381 

Rio  Grande.  The  news  of  these  victories  aroused  the  country 
and  made  Taylor  a  popular  hero.  He  was  already  much  loved 
by  his  soldiers,  who  gave  him  the  nickname  of  "Rough  and 
Ready,"  because  of  his  carelessness  of  dress  and  other  details 
and  his  thorough  capability  as  a  commander. 

381.  Taylor's  Advance  toward  Mexico. — War  was  formally 
declared  by  the  United  States  on  May  13,  Congress  authorizing 
the  President  to  call  out  fifty  thousand  volunteers  and  voting 
ten  million  dollars  for  expenses.     On  May  18,  Taylor  occupied 
Matamoras,  halting  there  until  September.     He  then  advanced 
upon  Monterey,  other  officers,  military  and  naval,  having  mean 
while  been  occupying  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California.    Mon 
terey  fell,  after  a  short  siege,  on  September  24.     But  Mexico 
would  not  yield,  although  Colonel  Doniphan,  after  a  long,  hard 
march,  had  taken  Chihuahua  and  gained  control  of  the  impor 
tant  surrounding  region,   and  although  victory  had  crowned 
every  effort  of  the  Americans. 

382.  Capture  of  Vera  Cruz.  —  As  a  speedy  peace  was  much 
desired   by  the  administration,    it   now  seemed   necessary  to 
send  General  Scott1  to  the  front.     It  was  determined  that  his 
forces  should  sail  early  in  the  spring  to  Vera  Cruz,  and  from 
that  place  begin  a  march  to  the  City  of  Mexico.     He  landed 
at  Vera  Cruz  on  March  9,  1847,  and  after  a  bombardment  took 
the  town  twenty  days  later. 

383.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista.  —  Meanwhile  Santa  Anna,  in  full 
command  once  more,  hearing  in  January  that  Scott  had  taken 
ten  thousand  troops  from  Taylor,  and  believing  that  Vera  Cruz 
could  hold  out  for  some  time,  determined  to  make  a  swift 
march   northward  and   crush  Taylor.     It  was    a   daring   and 

i  Born  in  Virginia,  1786 ;  died,  1866.  Graduated  at  William  and  Mary  Col 
lege,  and  entered  the  army,  1808 :  distinguished  himself  in  the  War  of  1812,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier  and  brevet  major 
general  in  1814 ;  became  commander  in  chief  of  the  United  States  Army  in 
1841 ;  distinguished  himself  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  victories  in  the  Mexican 
War ;  was  defeated  by  Pierce  for  the  Presidency  in  1852 ;  retired  from  the 
army,  October,  1861. 


§  384]       THE   CONDUCT  AND   EESULTS   OF  THE   WAR,       301 

probably  a  good  plan,  but  it  failed.  Taylor,  then  some  dis 
tance  from  Monterey,  was  not  a  whit  daunted  when,  on  Febru 
ary  20,  he  discovered  about  twelve  thousand  Mexicans  in  front 
of  his  own  five  thousand  troops.  He  retired  and  took  up  a 
good  position  near  Buena  Vista,  refusing  Santa  Anna's  demand 
for  surrender  three  days  later,  and  inflicting  a  severe  defeat 
upon  his  enemy  before  the  day  closed  (February  23,  1847). 
The  American  loss  was  about  eight  hundred,  the  Mexican  over 
twice  as  many.  The  battle  settled  the  fate  of  the  territory  that 
America  craved,  and,  moreover,  determined  who  should  be  the 
next  President  of  the  United  States.  Curiously  enough,  the 
future  President  of  the  Confederate  States,  who  was  Taylor's 
own  son-in-law,  also  won  great  distinction  at  Buena  Vista. 
Jefferson  Davis  fought  with  conspicuous  bravery,  showed 
much  tactical  ingenuity,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  this 
remarkable  battle. 

384.  Scott's  Great  March.  —  If  Taylor's  career  had  been  bril 
liant,  Scott's  was  now  to  be  more  so.  Unfortunately  for  the 
latter's  Presidential  aspirations,  however,  Taylor  had  already 
caught  the  attention  of  the  public.  Besides,  Scott,  who  was 
strict  with  regard  to  discipline  and  fond  of  display,  —  qualities 
that  earned  him  the  nickname  of  "  Fuss  and  Feathers,"  -  —  was 
not  the  man  to  secure  popularity.  Before  his  brilliant  cam 
paign  was  over,  he  had  several  unpleasant  difficulties  with 
subordinate  officers.  But,  as  a  general,  he  showed  himself  to 
be  fully  Taylor's  equal,  perhaps  his  superior.  Leaving  Vera 
Cruz,  he  forced,  on  April  18,  the  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
which  had  been  fortified.  It  was  defended  by  fifteen  thousand 
Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna,  whose  courage  had  not  been  les 
sened  by  his  defeat  at  Buena  Vista.  Here  again  the  Mexican 
losses  far  exceeded  the  American.  Three  thousand  prisoners 
were  captured,  along  with  a  great  store  of  arms  and  artillery, 
and  three  towns  were  taken.  At  one  of  these,  Puebla,  the  army 
halted  for  a  rest  of  two  months.  At  the  beginning  of  August 
the  march  on  the  capital  was  renewed,  about  eleven  thousand 


302          THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK,   1845-1849.        [§385 

men  moving  forward.  By  August  18,  they  were  within  ten 
miles  of  the  city,  where  the  enemy  made  a  determined  stand. 
The  next  day  and  the  day  after  saw  three  battles,  —  Contreras, 
San  Antonio,  and  Churubusco,  —  all  fought  with  splendid 
courage  and  great  success  against  much  larger  forces  of  Mexi 
cans,  who  fought  quite  as  desperately,  but  with  less  skill. 


GENERAL  WINFIELD  SCOTT. 

385.  The  Capture  of  Mexico.  — The  Mexicans  being  dispersed, 
Scott  might  have  entered  the  capital,  but  Polk  wished  to 
render  negotiations  easy,  and  an  armistice  was  granted  in  order 
that  terms  of  peace  might  be  discussed.  The  American  envoy, 
N.  P.  Trist,  was  instructed  to  ask  for  New  Mexico,  the  Cali- 
f  ornias,  and  the  region  between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande  j 


§  387]       THE   CONDUCT  AND   RESULTS   OF   THE    WAR.       303 

although  he  was  authorized  to  drop  the  demand  for  Lower 
California  if  necessary,  and  also  to  offer  money  for  the  other 
territory.  The  Mexican  commissioners  would  not  agree  to 
these  proposals,  and  in  their  turn  offered  less  than  Polk  desired. 
So  the  armistice  was  terminated.  Then,  on  September  8,  Scott 
won  the  brilliant  victory  of  Molino  del  Eey  ("Mill  of  the 
King").  Five  days  later,  the  heights  of  Chapultepec,  as  well 
as  two  of  the  city's  gates,  were  stormed  with  great  gallantry. 
On  the  next  day  (September  14,  1847)  a  triumphal  entry  was 
made  into  the  Mexican  capital,  in  the  defense  of  which  so 
many  gallant  men  had  perished. 

386.  The  Best  Feature  of  the  War. —  The  best  feature  of  the 
Mexican  War  was  not  the  splendid  territorial  booty  obtained, 
nor  the  remarkable  leadership  displayed  by  Scott,  Taylor,  and 
their  subordinates,  but  the  superior  morale  of  the  American 
troops.     As  these  were  in  the  main  volunteers,  the  conduct  of 
the  war  was  all  the  more  a  credit  to  the  nation,  especially  to 
the  Southern  and  Southwestern  states,  where  the  struggle  had 
been  popular.     These   brave  volunteers   wiped  out  whatever 
disgrace  attached  to  the  country  from  the  shameful,  lack  of 
efficiency  shown  by  the  troops  of  1812.    The  war  was  also 
important  for  the  training  it  furnished  young  officers  who  were 
destined  to  play  important  parts  in  the  Civil  War.     "  Stone 
wall  "  Jackson,  McClellan,  Grant,  Lee,  and  other  generals  here 
first  showed  the  stuff  that  was  in  them. 

387.  Results  of  the  War.  —  The  unequal  contest  was  settled 
by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (February  2, 1848).    Mexico 
had  to  agree  to  relinquish  all  her  territory  north  of  the  Bio 
Grande  and  Gila  rivers.    In  compensation  for  Upper  California 
and  New  Mexico,  the  United  States  allowed  her  the  sum  of 
fifteen   million   dollars,   and   undertook   to   pay   some  of  its 
own  citizens  who  had  claims  against  Mexico.     The  territory 
thus  acquired  soon  threw  the  country  into  great  political  con 
fusion;   for  certain  Northern  politicians  were  determined  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  any  extension  of  slavery  in  the  domain 


304          THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   POLK,    1845-1849.        [§  388 

obtained   by  purchase,  even  though  it  lay  south  of  36°  30' 
(§  329). 

388.  The  Wilmot  Proviso.  —As  early  as  1846,  Kepresentative 
David  A.  Wilmot  of  Pennsylvania  had  proposed  an  amend 
ment  to  a  bill  pending,  stipulating  that  no  money  should  be 
appropriated  to  purchase  territory  unless  slavery  were  pro 
hibited  therein;   and  though  this  amendment,  known  as  the 
Wilmot  Proviso,  had  failed,  the  principle  involved  in  it  was 
made  the  chief  feature  of  the  campaign  of  1848. 

389.  Election   of  1848.  —  In  this  struggle  five  parties  were 
engaged.     Certain  disaffected  Democrats  of  New  York,  known 
as  Barn-burners,1  a  party  known  as  the  Free  Boilers,  and  the 
old  Liberty  Party  of  the  abolitionists,  —  all  being  opposed  to 
the  extension  of  slavery,  —  finally  nominated  Van  Buren.    The 
Democrats  nominated  Lewis  Cass  of  Michigan,  who  advocated 
what  was  afterward  famous   as  Popular  or   Squatter   Sover 
eignty,  —  that  is,  the  right  of  the  people  of  each  territory  to 
choose  whether  they  would  have  slavery  or  not.     The  Whigs 
nominated  General  Zachary  Taylor  of  Louisiana,  and  placed  on 
the  ticket  with  him  Millard  Fillmore  of  New  York.     Their 
principles  were  not  pronounced ;  but  Taylor  was  a  Southerner 
and  carried  a  large  part  of  his  section  with  him,  while  Van 
Buren's  vote  lost  New  York  to  the  Democrats.     Thus  Taylor 
and  Fillmore  were  elected ;  but  the  South  soon  regretted  the 
fact,  for  the  new  President  showed  himself  friendly  to  the 
anti-slavery  men  by  urging  the  admission  of  California  as  a 
free  state. 

REFERENCES.  —  GENERAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapter  XIX. 

SPECIAL  WORKS  :  same  as  for  Chapters  XXII.  and  XXIII.,  with  the 
addition  of  :  H.  Wilson,  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power 
in  America,  Vol.  II.,  chaps,  ii.-iii. ;  H.  II.  Bancroft,  Pacific  States,  Vol. 
VIII.;  Winfield  Scott,  Memoirs;  U.  S.  Grant,  Personal  Memoirs,  Vol.1., 
chaps,  iii.-xiii. 

1  An  uncomplimentary  name  given  them  by  their  opponents  on  account  of 
their  supposed  revolutionary  opinions  on  political  matters. 


PART   V. 

THE  EVE   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR,  1850-1861, 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    TAYLOR    AND    FILLMORE, 

1849-1853. 

THE  QUESTION  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

390.  General  Conditions.  —  The  period  of  controversy  upon 
which  we  are  about  to  enter,  was  caused  by  the  opposing  inter 
ests  and  feelings  of  the  North  and  South  on  the  subject  of 
slavery.     Tn  the  early  history  of  the  country,  the  balance  of 
power  had  been  kept  even  by  the  alternate  admission  of  free 
and  slave  states.     But  the  admission  of  Texas,  and  still  more, 
the  results  of  the  Mexican  War,  enlivened  the  hopes  of  the 
South,  while  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (§  388)  showed  that  the  North 
was  fully  aware  of  the  great  interests  involved  in  the  annexa 
tion  of  any  new  territory  capable  of  supporting  slavery. 

391.  Claims  of  the  South. —  The  people  of  the  South,  espe 
cially  those  of  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi,  which  had  perhaps 
become  the  most  influential  states  in  political  matters,  asserted 
that  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  provided  for  by  the  Constitution 
and  enacted  into  a  statute  by  Congress  in  1793,  had  not  been 
fairly  carried  out  by  the  people  of  the  North.    Southerners  also 
charged  the  North  with  a  growing  tendency  to  misrepresent, 

305 


306  TAYLOR   AND   FILLMORE,   1849-1853.  [§392 

interfere  with,  and  overthrow  the  institution  of  slavery,  which 
had  been  so  carefully  protected  by  the  Constitution.  They 
saw  that  the  North  was  growing  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
South,  and  that  the  time  was  not  far  away  when  the  South  might 
be  outvoted  in  Congress,  with  the  result  that,  by  a  change  of  the 
Constitution,  slavery  would  perhaps  be  swept  entirely  away. 
The  circulation  of  anti-slavery  newspapers,  especially  William 
Lloyd  Garrison's  Liberator,  continued  to  give  great  offense  to 
the  South,  and  caused  laws  to  be  passed  by  the  Southern  states 
prohibiting  the  distribution  of  such  journals.  The  feelings 
thus  aroused  were  further  excited  by  repeated  efforts  to  secure 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

392.  Claims  of  the  North.  —  In  the  North,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  feeling  was  constantly  growing  that  slavery  was  a  moral 
wrong  and  a  national  disgrace.     While  the  people  generally 
disavowed  the  right  to  interfere  with  the  institution  where 
it  already  existed,  they  were  determined  to  -resist  legislation 
which  would  introduce  it  into  any  of  the  new  territories.     They 
also  claimed  the  right  to  the  free  expression  of  their  opinion 
and  to  the  free  publication  of  their  views.     It  was  evident  that 
only  a  definite  occasion  was  needed  to  bring  the  sections  to  a 
rupture  which  might  precipitate  a  civil  war.     This  occasion 
soon  came. 

393.  California  opens  a  New  Question.  —  In  spite  of  the  grow 
ing  estrangement  of  the  sections)  even  the  admission  of  Texas 
furnished   no   definite  ground  for  a  positive  clash.     But  the 
acquisition  of  California  introduced  a  new  element  into  the 
political  situation.     Part  of  the  territory  was  south  of  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise  line  of  36°  30',  and  part  was  north  of  it*-''  The 
inhabitants  demanded  admission  to  the  Union  as  a  state,  and 
the  question  at  once  arose  whether  California  should  be  ad 
mitted  as  a  free  or  a  slave  state.     The  Californians  asked  to  be 
admitted  as  a  free  and  undivided  state.     Their  demands  were 
all  the  more  weighty  because  of  the  newly  acquired  importance 
of  California  in  the  eyes  of  the  world. 


§394] 


THE    QUESTION   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


307 


394.  California  and  the  Discovery  of  Gold. — California  was  a 
beautiful  region  which  offered  many  advantages  besides  that  of 
rounding  out  American  territory  on  the  Pacific.  Its  climate 
was  delightful;  its  soil  fertile  and  capable  of  varied  produc 
tions;  its  forests  were  valuable.  But  a  greater  source  of 
wealth  was  soon  discovered.  In  January,  1848,  an  American 
mechanic  named  Marshall,  in  the  employ  of  a  Swiss  named 
Sutter,  found  gold  in  a  mill-race  near  the  Sacramento  Kiver. 
The  secret  was  not 
kept,  and  soon  every 
industry  in  the 
region  was  aban 
doned  and  thou 
sands  of  men  were 
washing  sand  and 
digging  gold  out  of 
the  cliffs.  The  news 
reached  Washington 
late  in  1848,  and  the 
next  year  saw  a  rush 
for  California,  the 
like  of  which  had 
never  been  known 
before.  Some  adventurers  made  the  long  journey  overland  in 
caravans  formed  of  vehicles  of  every  sort.  Others  tried  the 
dangerous  voyage  around  Cape  Horn.  Others  went  by  ship  to 
Panama,  crossed  the  Isthmus,  and  took  their  chances  of  getting 
a  vessel  on  the  Pacific  side.  Arrived  in  California,  these 
"Forty-niners,"  as  they  have  since  been  called,  plunged  into 
the  wild,  exciting  life  described  so  well  by  Bret  Harte.  Soon 
a  population  large  enough  to  demand  statehood  was  assembled, 
and  California  began  to  play  its  great  part  in  national  affairs.1 

1  Meanwhile,  New  Mexico  attracted  little  attention,  except  so  far  as  part 
of  her  territory  was  claimed  by  Texas.  This  claim,  in  the  support  of  which 
much  sectional  spirit  was  shown,  but  in  which  President  Taylor  displayed 
great  firmness  and  devotion  to  the  Union,  was  finally  compromised.  In 


SUTTER' s  MILL,  CALIFORNIA,  where  gold  was 
first  discovered.  —  From  an  old  print. 


308 


TAYLOR   AND   F1LLMORE,  1849-1853. 


[§395 


THE  COMPROMISE  OF  1850. 

395.  Doctrines  of  Clay,  Webster,  and  Calhoun.  —  There  was 
naturally  much  excitement  over  the  demand  of  the  Califor- 
nians,  and  declarations  of  a  purpose  to  secede  were  often  heard 
in  Southern  conventions.  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
the  North  and  the  South  nearer  together,  and  preventing  such 

a  catastrophe,  that  Henry 
Clay,  the  author  of  the 
Second  Missouri  Compro 
mise,  now  came  forward 
with  the  famous  Compromise 
of  1850.  Before  introducing 
it,  he  had  an  interview  with 
Daniel  Webster  and  secured 
the  promise  of  the  latter's 
support.  The  debate  on  the 
subject  was  one  of  the  most 
memorable  in  the  history  of 
Congress.  Clay,  in  one  of 
the  greatest  of  his  speeches, 
described  the  dangers  of  the 
situation  and  pointed  out 

that  national  disaster  could 
HENRY  CLAY  (1847).  ,  ,  ,  , 

be  averted  only  by  a  reason 
able  yielding  on  both  sides.  Calhoun,  nearing  his  grave, 
and  too  feeble  even  to  read  his  speech,  was  brought  into 
the  Senate  in  a  chair  to  hear  his  speech  read  by  a  colleague. 
Eeiterating  his  doctrine  of  the  constitutional  right  of  secession, 
he  maintained  that  a  continuance  of  the  present  conditions  was 
impossible.  But  the  greatest  interest  was  concentrated  upon 
Webster.  He  was  universally  regarded  as  the  foremost  states 
man  in  the  North.  Though  he  had  often  deplored  the  exist- 

December,  1853,  by  what  is  known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  about  45.000 
square  miles  were  acquired  from  Mexico,  and  the  southern  boundary  oi  the 
United  States  was  rounded  off. 


396] 


THE    COMPROMISE   OF   1850. 


309 


ence  of  slavery,  and  always  opposed  its  extension,  his  views  on 
the  matter  of  the  Compromise  now  presented  were  not  gener 
ally  known,  and  the  declaration  of  his  position  was  awaited 
with  intense  anxiety.    His  speech  on  Clay's  measure,  since  com 
monly  referred  to  as  the  "  Seventh  of  March  Speech/'  cast  the 
great  weight  of  his  powerful  influence  in  favor  of  the  Com 
promise.     His  act  was  much  criticised  in  the  North,  and  he 
was  freely  accused  of  seeking  favor  with  the  Southerners  in 
order  to  secure  their  help  in  the  approaching  Presidential  elec 
tion,  when  he  expected 
to  be  a  candidate.  But 
Webster    had   always 
been    a    stanch   advo 
cate  of  the  Union,  and 
there  was  nothing  in 
his  present  course  that 
was  inconsistent  with 
the   positions  he  had 
uniformly  held.     The 
feeling    against    him, 
however,    became,    in 
many  quarters  of  the 
North,   intensely    bit 
ter. 

396.  Presidential 
Policy  changed  by 
Death  of  Taylor.  —  Be 
fore  the  final  passage 
of  the  Compromise 
measures,  President 
Taylor  died,  July  9, 1850,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Vice  Presi 
dent,  Millard  Fillmore.  Taylor,  although  a  Southerner,  had  been 
very  largely  influenced  by  William  H.  Seward,1  a  senator  from 

1  Born  in  New  York,  1801;  died,  1872.  Graduated  at  Union  College,  1820; 
began  practice  as  a  lawyer  at  Auburn;  was  sent  to  state  Senate,  1830;  was 
defeated  for  governor  in  1834,  but  was  successful,  183&-1 843;  entered  tbe 


WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD. 
[By  courtesy  of  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.] 


310 


TAYLOR   AND  FILLMORE,   1849-1853. 


[§396 


• 


New  York,  who  had  led  with  great  ability  the  opposition  to 
the  Compromise.  Taylor  did  not  have  a  strong  Cabinet,  and 

was  untrained  as  a 
statesman,  but  he 
showed,  in  his  short 
administration,  great 
common  sense  and 
firmness,  and,  had  he 
lived,  might  have  pre 
vailed  on  Congress  to 
adopt  a  policy  toward 
California  less  tortu 
ous  than  that  involved 
in  Clay's  Compromise. 
Fillmore,1  who  suc 
ceeded  to  the  Presi 
dency,  although  a  good 
man,  was  not  a  strong 
one,  and  had  not  been 
on  friendly  terms  with 
his  fellow  New  Yorker, 
Seward.  In  making 
up  his  Cabinet,  he 

made  Webster  Secretary  of  State  in  place  of  Clayton,  of  Dela 
ware,  and  leaned  upon  the  former  for  advice.  The  policy  of 

United  States  Senate,  1849 ;  became  prominent  as  an  anti-slavery  leader ;  deliv 
ered  famous  speeches  on  "  Higher  Law,"  and  on  "  Irrepressible  Conflict,"  1858 ; 
was  Lincoln's  chief  rival  for  the  Republican  nomination  in  1860;  Secretary  of 
State  under  Lincoln  and  Johnson,  1861-1869;  was  wounded  by  conspirators  at 
the  time  of  Lincoln's  assassination;  opposed  Reconstruction  by  Congress; 
secured  the  cession  of  Alaska,  1867. 

l  Born  in  New  York,  1800;  died,  1874.  Worked  on  a  farm  and  as  an  ap 
prentice  ;  studied  law ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Erie  County,  1823 ;  sent  to  legis 
lature,  1828 ;  removed  to  Buffalo  in  1830,  and  won  reputation  as  a  lawyer ;  in 
Congress,  1832-1834,  1836-1842;  largely  instrumental  in  framing  and  passing 
tariff  of  1842 ;  defeated  for  governor  of  New  York,  1844;  comptroller  of  State 
of  New  York,  1847-1849;  elected  Vice  President,  1848;  became  President, 
July  10,  1850;  failed  of  re-nomination  and  retired  from  politics,  1852. 


MILLARD  FJLLMORE. 


§398]  THE   COMPROMISE   OF   1850.  311 

the  administration  was  thus  so  completely  changed  that  the 
weight  of  its  influence  was  at  once  thrown  in  favor  of  the 
adoption  and  rigid  enforcement  of  the  Compromise  legislation. 

397.  The  Compromise  of  1850.  —  The  resolutions  introduced 
by  Clay  were  much  amended  in  the  course  of  their  considera 
tion,  but  in  final  form,  as  adopted  in  September,  1850,  they 
covered  the  following  provisions  :  — 

1.  California  was  to  be  admitted  as  a  free  state. 

2.  New  Mexico  and  Utah  were  to  be  organized  as  territories 
without  any  restriction  or  condition  in  regard  to  slavery. 

3.  The  slave  trade  was  to  be  abolished  within  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

4.  A  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  stringent  enough  to  satisfy  the 
South,  was  to  be  passed. 

5.  Texas  was  to  receive  the  price  she  demanded  for  the  land 
ceded  to  New  Mexico  (§  394,  note). 

398.  New  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  —  That  part  of  the  Compromise 
which  provided  for  a  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  so  stringent  in 
its  provisions  that  it  defeated  its  own  end,  by  arousing  so  vig 
orous  an  opposition  in  the  North  that  it  could  not  be  enforced. 
It  had  been  made  retroactive,  in  order  that  slaves  who  had 
taken  refuge  in  the  North  before  the  passage  of  the  act  might 
be  seized  by  United  States  marshals,  and,  without   trial   by 
jury,  forcibly  taken  to  their  old  masters.     This  feature  of  the 
law  had  an  instantaneous  effect  on  public  opinion.     It  soon 
came  to  be  seen  that  the  people  would  not  permit  men  and 
women  who,  as  they  said,  had  become  free  by  living  in  a  free 
state,  to  be  taken  back  into  slavery.     The  law  was  frustrated 
in  many  ways,  the  f ramers  having  overlooked  one  special  weak 
ness  in  it.     Though  fugitives  were  not  to  be  entitled  to  trial 
by  jury,  the  right  of  such  a  trial  was  not  taken  from  the  res 
cuers.     Many  a  fugitive  was  seized  from   the  United  States 
marshals,  and  the  rescuers,  when  tried,  were  acquitted  by  jury.1 

1  One  of  the  most  famous  cases  of  resistance  to  the  law  occurred  in  Boston 
in  May,  1854.    A  negro  named  Anthony  Burns  was  arrested  as  a  fugitive 


312  TAYLOR  AND   FILLMORE,   1849-1853.  [§399 

New  laws,  known  as  Personal  Safety  Acts,  designed  to  protect 
fugitives  and  frustrate  the  operation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
were  passed  by  the  New  England  states  and  by  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa. 
These  were  specially  referred  to  as  a  cause  of  complaint  in  the 
South  Carolina  Act  of  Secession.  For  these  various  reasons, 
the  number  of  slaves  actually  returned  was  very  small,  and 
both  sections  were  dissatisfied  with  the  result. 

399.  "  The  Underground  Railroad."  — There  was  also  organ 
ized  a  system  to  assist  fugitives  to  escape  to  Canada,  where 
they  could  not  be  arrested.     Stations  were  established,  generally 
at  private  houses,  where  runaway  slaves  could  be  concealed  in 
the  daytime  and  helped  forward  to  the  next  station  in  the 
night.     The  founder  of  this  system  was  Levi  Coffin,  a  Quaker 
living  near  Philadelphia,  who  for  several  years/  helped  into 
freedom  as  many  as  one  hundred  slaves  a  year.     This  system, 
known  as  the  "Underground  Kailroad,"   gradually  extended 
from  the  East  as  far  west  as  the  Missouri  river.     Thus,  while 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  greatly  inflamed  the  North,  the  ways  in 
which  it  was  frustrated  greatly  inflamed  the  South. 

400.  New  Leaders. —  Soon  after  the  passage  of  this  obnoxious 
law,  Calhoun,  Clay,  and  Webster  died.     They  were  succeeded 
in  influence  by  younger  men,  of  more  strenuous  beliefs  and 
methods.     Of  these  William  H.  Seward  of  New  York,  Charles 
Sumner  of  Massachusetts,  and  Salmon  P.  Chase  of  Ohio  were 
prominent  representatives  of  the  anti-slavery  element,  while 
Stephen  A.  Douglas  of  Illinois,  Jefferson  Davis  of  Mississippi, 
William  L.  Yancey  of  Alabama,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens 
of  Georgia  were  the  most  influential  leaders  on  the  other  side. 

slave.  Before  his  final  examination  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  took 
place,  a  mass  meeting  to  protest  against  his  surrender  to  the  person  claiming 
him  as  a  slave  was  held  in  Faneuil  Hall.  A  premature  attempt  was  made  to 
rescue  him  and  several  persons  were  wounded.  Finally,  when  the  Commis 
sioner  ordered  his  surrender,  many  houses  were  draped  in  black  and  a  riot 
was  with  difficulty  averted.  Burns  eventually  became  a  Baptist  clergyman 
in  Canada. 


§  402]       INTERNATIONAL  AND   DOMESTIC   AFFAIRS.  313 


INTERNATIONAL   AND   DOMESTIC   AFFAIRS. 

401.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty.  —  Although  the  Compro 
mise  of  1850  overshadows  every  other  event  of  the  period 
covered  by  this  chapter,  it  should  not  absorb  the  student's 
entire  attention.  Early  in  General  Taylor's  administration, 
certain  international  affairs  of  importance  became  pressing. 
In  1826,  the  matter  of  a  ship  canal  across  Nicaragua  or 
Panama  had  been  advocated  by  Henry  Clay.  "The  benefits 
of  such  a  canal,"  Clay  wrote,  "ought  not  to  be  exclusively 
appropriated  to  any  one  nation,  but  should  be  extended  to 
all  parts  of  the  globe."  In  the  course  of  the  following  twenty 
years,  Jackson  and  Polk  often  reverted  to  the  subject  in  the 
same  general  spirit.  When  John  M.  Clayton  of  Delaware 
entered  upon  his  duties  as,  Taylor's  Secretary  of  State,  he 
found  that  the  question  demanded  immediate  consideration, 
for  the  reason  that  two  capitalists,  one  American  and  one 
British,  were  contemplating  the  construction  of  such  a  canal 
across  Nicaragua.  The  result  was  that  on  April  19,  1850, 
what  is  known  as  the  "Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty"  was  signed  in 
Washington  by  Secretary  Clayton  and  Sir  Henry  Lytton  Bul- 
wer,  the  British  Minister.  The  treaty  provided  that  the  two 
powers  should  guarantee  the  neutrality  and  security  of  the 
canal  when  completed,  and  they  invited  all  friendly  states  to 
enter  into  similar  stipulations  with  them,  "  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind,  on  equal  terms  to  all."  This  treaty  was  afterward 
to  be  the  subject  of  not  a  little  embarrassment  (§  680). 

402.  Railways  and  Steamships.  —  The  passage  of  the  Compro 
mise  of  1850  seemed  to  promise  peace  with  regard  to  slavery ; 
but  the  aid  given  by  the  South  to  attempts  to  conquer  Cuba, 
especially  those  of  Narciso  Lopez,1  proved  to  thoughtful  minds 
that  sectional  strife  had  been  allayed,  not  completely  suppressed. 
Yet  even  then  American  industry  and  enterprise  were  forging 
links  of  union  against  which  sectional  strife  could  not  long 

1  In  1849, 1850,  and  1851.    In  the  last  attempt,  Lopez  was  taken  and  executed. 


314  TAYLOR   AND   F1LLMORE,    1849-1853.  [§403 

prevail.  Before  1852,  over  ten  thousand  miles  of  railway  track 
had  been  laid  in  the  United  States,  mainly  in  New  England, 
the  Middle  states,  and  the  Northwest.  The  New  York  and 
Erie  road  became  a  rival  of  the  famous  Erie  Canal,  and  its 
completion  in  the  spring  of  1851  was  the  occasion  of  a  Railway 
Jubilee,  which  was  attended  by  Fillmore  and  his  Cabinet. 
Later  in  the  year,  a  similar  celebration  was  held  in  Boston. 
On  the  ocean,  also,  speedier  transportation  was  obtained. 
The  British  Canard  Line  and  the  American  Collins  Line 
ran  races  for  Europe,  and  travel  was  considerably  stimulated. 
On  the  inland  waters  navigation  increased  rapidly ;  but,  owing 
to  a  lack  of  proper  inspection,  many  steamers  took  fire  and 
great  loss  of  life  ensued.  The  spread  of  the  telegraph  over  the 
country  also  brought  distant  points  into  contact  in  a  way  that 
would  have  been  deemed  incredible  a  generation  before. 

403.  Kossuth's  Visit. — The  great  growth  in  population,  the  ac 
quisition  of  vast  territories,  the  surprising  industrial  and  com 
mercial  development,  were  not  only  uniting  the  people  of 
America,  but  were  stimulating  their  emotional  nature.  The 
quiet,  staid  country  of  two  generations  before  no  longer  existed. 
Popular  furores  became  possible  and  a  love  of  the  spectacular 
was  developed.  Barnum,  the  showman,  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  fortune.  Newspapers  rivaled  one  another  in  securing 
news  quickly.  International  yacht  races  were  begun.  Dis 
tinguished  men  went  on  lecture  tours  through  the  country. 
Great  authors  and  actors  came  from  abroad  to  receive  American 
hospitality  and  applause.  There  were  women's  rights  conven 
tions  and  agitations  in  behalf  of  temperance.1  But  all  these 
elements  of  excitement  were  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the 
visit  of  Louis  Kossuth,  the  great  Hungarian  orator  who  had 
vainly  attempted  to  secure  the  independence  of  his  native  land 
and  was  now  an  exile.  Invited  by  Congress,  Kossuth  late  in 
1851  reached  the  United  States,  on  the  man-of-war  Mississippi. 
He  was  received  with  an  enthusiasm  unequaled  in  our  his- 

1  The  "  Maine  Liquor  Law  "  went  into  effect  in  1851. 


§  404]       INTERNATIONAL   AND   DOMESTIC   AFFAIRS.  315 

tory,  save  on  the  occasion  of  Lafayette's  visit.  Receptions 
were  given  him  in  all  the  chief  cities,  and  he  astonished  his 
hearers  by  the  ease  and  power  with  which  he  spoke  English. 
But  he  made  the  mistake  of  trying  to  persuade  the  people  that 
the  policy  of  non-interference  in  European  affairs,  established 
by  Washington,  was  an  erroneous  one.  A  few  politicians,  for 
party  purposes,  seconded  his  proposal  that  the  United  States 
should  intervene  in  behalf  of  Hungary.  But  the  nation  at 
large  held  aloof  from  him ;  the  novelty  of  his  visit  wore  off; 
and  the  great  orator  returned  to  Europe  a  disappointed  man. 

404.  The  Campaign  of  1852.  —  The  next  excitement  was 
caused  by  the  Presidential  campaign.  The  Democratic  con 
vention  held  at  Baltimore, —  the  most  convenient  convention 
city  in  those  days,  —  after  much  balloting,  set  aside  the  chief 
candidates,  Cass  of  Michigan,  Douglas  of  Illinois,  Buchanan 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  Marcy  of  New  York,  and  chose  General 
Franklin  Pierce l  of  New  Hampshire,  a  man  who  hitherto  had 
attracted  little  attention.  He  had  served  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  was  upright  in  character ;  but  he  possessed  a  mind  little 
capable  of  guiding  the  country  in  the  great  crisis  that  was  ap 
proaching.  His  friendship  with  Jefferson  Davis  and  other 
Southern  leaders  foretold  his  alliance  with  the  advocates 
of  slavery ;  but  as  people  thought  the  slavery  question  settled 
by  the  Compromise  of  1850,  this  did  not  interfere  with  his 
chances  at  the  polls.  .William  R.  King  of  Alabama  was  nomi 
nated  for  Vice  President,  and  the  Democrats  went  into  the  cam 
paign  with  great  hopes  of  -success.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Whigs  were  divided  and  depressed.  After  a  hard  struggle, 
Fillmore  —  who  had  made  many  enemies  by  signing  the  Fugi- 

1  Born  in  New  Hampshire,  1804 ;  died,  1869.  Graduated  at  Bowdoin  College, 
where  he  studied  with  Hawthorne  and  Longfellow;  became  a  lawyer  and 
member  of  the  Legislature ;  congressman,  1833-1837 ;  United  States  senator, 
1837-1842 ;  declined  a  Cabinet  offer  from  President  Polk ;  volunteered  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  as  brigadier  general  showed  bravery  and  skill ;  was  presi 
dent  of  the  state  Constitutional  Convention  in  1850;  was  nominated  for 
President  of  the  United  States  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot,  and  elected  in  1852; 
was  defeated  for  renominatiou  in  185G.  . 


316 


TAYLOR  AND  FILLMORE,   1849-1853. 


[§404 


tive  Slave  Law  —  and  Daniel  Webster  had  to  yield  the  nomina 
tion  to  General  Winfield  Scott,  who  was  far  from  popular. 

Shortly  afterward, 
the  deaths  of  Clay 
and  Webster  (who 
was  bitterly  disap 
pointed  and  hostile 
to  Scott)  robbed 
the  party  of  its 
real  leaders ;  im 
portant  Southern 
Whigs  held  aloof 
from  Scott ;  the 
Free  Soil  party  put 
up  candidates  of 
its  own;  and  the 
hero  of  the  march 
to  Mexico  was 
badly  beaten  by  a 
younger  and  in 
ferior  man.  Pierce 
had  two  hundred 
and  fifty-four  elec 
toral  votes  to  Scott's  forty-two.  The  ambiguous  attitude  of  the 
Whigs  toward  the  slavery  question  had  hopelessly  split  the 
party  asunder.  Scott's  personal  unpopularity  also  partly  ac 
counts  for  the  overwhelming  character  of  the  defeat  suffered 
by  the  Whigs;  and  doubtless  there  was  a  general  desire  to 
give  the  Compromise  a  fair  chance  under  the  Democrats,  who 
heartily  favored  it. 


FKANKLIN  PIERCE. 


REFERENCES.  —  See  end  of  Chapter  XXVI. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    PIERCE,  1853-1857. 

THE   CONFUSION   OF  PARTIES. 

405.  Character  of  Pierce' s  Administration. — The  passage  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  and  the  war  in  Kansas  are  the  most 
important  features  of 
Pierce's  administra 
tion  (§§  411-414). 
The  new  President, 
being  amiable  and 
weak,  yielded  to  the 
counsels  of  Jefferson 
Davis  and  Caleb 
Gushing1  of  his  Cabi 
net,  and  took  a  strong 
pro-slavery  position, 
with  the  result  that 
he  speedily  lost  his 
popularity,  save  in 
the.  South.  At  first, 
however,  he  pleased 
most  of  his  fellow- 
citizens,  especially  on 
such  occasions  as  his 
visit  to  the  World's  Fair  at  New  York  in  1853,  where  he  made 

iBorn  in  Massachusetts,  1800;  died,  1879.  Graduated  at  Harvard,  1817; 
studied  law,  served  in  the  legislature,  and  traveled  in  Europe ;  congressman, 
1834-1843 ;  ceased  to  he  a  Whig  and  supported  Tyler,  soon  affiliating  himself 
with  the  Democrats ;  served  in  Mexican  War  and  became  brigadier  general ; 
appointed  Judge  of  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court  but  soon  resigned  to  become 
Attorney-General  under  Pierce ;  held  other  offices  of  importance,  among  them 

317 


318         THE    ADMINISTRATION   OF   PIERCE,    1853-1857.      [§406 

a  glowing  speech.  But  although  Pierce  himself  is  almost  for 
gotten,  his  administration  is  of  great  importance  to  the  student, 
since  its  leading  events  and  measures  were  most  instrumental 
in  bringing  on  the  Civil  War. 

406.  The  Know-Nothings. —  Pierce's  administration  was  dis 
tinguished  by  the  rise  of  a  new,  short-lived  party,  which  for 
a  time  caused  apprehension  in  the  older  organizations,  and 
had  much  to  do  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Whigs.     This  was 
the  American  party,  which  became  prominent  in  1852.      Its 
members  were  popularly  known  as  "  Know-Nothings,"  because, 
being  bound  by  oath  to  reveal  nothing  concerning  their  organ 
ization,  they  always  answered  inquiries  in  this  negative  fashion. 
It  had  "lodges,"  which  sent  delegates  to   secret  nominating 
conventions,  and  its  strength  could  not  be  gauged  before  an 
election.     Its  chief  object  was  to  prevent  foreigners  from  being 
too  easily  and  speedily  naturalized  and  to  elect  native-born 
Americans  to  office.     Similar  organizations  had  existed  before 
and  have  been  developed  since ;  but  the  American  people  have 
never  long  tolerated  illiberal  and  secret  parties.     The  Know- 
Nothings  carried  some  state  elections  and  put  candidates  in 
the  field  for  the  campaign  of  1856,  but  they  soon  after  disap 
peared  from  the  political  stage.     The  party  furnished  a  refuge 
to  many  Whigs,  particularly  from  the  South,  for  it  was  neutral 
on    the    slavery    question.      Its    growth  was    accelerated   by 
the  bad  influence  on  local  politics,  especially  in  New  York 
City,  exerted  by  the  crowds  of  ignorant  foreigners  who  sought 
our  shores  after  the  Eevolution  of  1848  and  the  great  Irish 
famine.     Nothing  could  have  been  more  disgraceful  than  the 
corrupt  municipal  government  of  New  York  City  about  this 
time,  and  many  citizens  feared  that  the  rest  of  the  country 
would  be  contaminated. 

407.  Attempts  to  Secure  Cuba.  —  Attempts  to  seize  territory 
to   the   south   in   the  interests  of   slavery,   continued   during 

the  mission  to  Spain  (1874-77) ;  wrote  several  books  and  was  a  man  of  un 
questioned  ability,  although  his  change  of  politics  and  Southern  sympathies 
brought  upon  him  much  criticism. 


§  409]  THE    CONFUSION   OF  PARTIES.  319 

Pierce's  administration.  In  1853,  a  bold  adventurer  named 
William  Walker  gathered  rash  followers  and  made  an  attack 
on  Lower  California,  which  completely  failed.  The  next 
year,  leading  Southerners  like  General  Quitman,  an  adopted 
citizen  of  Mississippi  and  a  distinguished  soldier  in  the 
Mexican  War,  tried  to  secure  Cuba  by  forcing  the  United 
States  into  a  war  with  Spain  on  account  of  the  confiscation  of 
an  American  steamer,  Tlie  Black  Warrior.  This  attempt  was 
merged  in  the  intrigues  that  produced  the  Ostend  Manifesto. 

408.  The  Ostend  Manifesto.  —  On  the  16th  of  August,  1854, 
William  L.  Marcy,  Pierce's  Secretary  of  State,  wrote  to  Pierre 
Soule,  the  American  minister  at  Madrid,  that  "much  advantage 
might  accrue  from  an  interchange  of  views  between  himself, 
Buchanan,  and  Mason"  (the  Ministers  to  Great  Britain  and 
France)  "in  regard  to  the  acquisition  of  Cuba."     Accordingly, 
these  three  Ministers  met  at  Ostend,  Belgium,  and  after  a  con 
ference  of  a  few  days,  promulgated  the  paper  known  as  the 
"  Ostend  Manifesto  "  (October  18,  1854).     They  declared,  first, 
that  Cuba  should  belong  to  the  United  States;    second,  that 
the  government  might  well  offer  for  the  island  the  sum  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  million  dollars;  and  third,  that  if  Spain 
would  not  accept  this  sum,  the  matter  of  conquest  ought  to  be 
considered.    The  manifesto  was  generally  well  received  in  the 
South,  but  in  the  North  it  was  characterized  as  "the  manifesto 
of  brigands." 

409.  Filibustering.  —  Soon  Central  America  attracted  the  fili 
busters,  as  these  adventurous  invaders  of  peaceable  states  were 
called.     In  1854  a  little  place  named  Greytown,  on  the  Mos 
quito  coast,  was  bombarded  by  an  American  ship  for  no  very 
good  reason.     The  next  year,  Walker  interfered  in  a  revolution 
in  Nicaragua,  and  for  a  while  got  control  of  the  state  by  making 
a  creature  of  his,  named  Bivas,  president.     The  new  government 
was  recognized  by  Pierce,  but  was  shortly  after  overthrown.1 

1  Walker  made  another  attempt  in  1857,  but  was  arrested  at  Greytown  and 
brought  to  the  Uuited  States  for  trial.    President  Buchanan  being  himself 


320        THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PIERCE,   1853-1867.      [§410 

410.  Perry's  Expedition.  —  Although,  the  disgraceful  actions 
of  the  filibusters  and  the  war  in  Kansas  seem  to  mark  Pierce's 
administration  as  a  thoroughly  discreditable  one,  it  was  not 
without  bright  features.  In  1854  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Japan  was  secured  as  the  result  of  a  naval  expedition  which 
had  been  sent  out  in  1852  under  Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry. 
This  treaty,  which  was  promulgated. in  1855,  is  memorable  as 
opening  a  place  for  Japan  among  the  great  nations  of  the  world. 


KANSAS-NEBRASKA  LEGISLATION. 

411.   Disappointment  of  the  South:   Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. — 

The  South  was  not  only  unable  to  secure  Cuba  and  other  slave 
territory;  but  could  not  help  seeing  that  the  advantage  it 
had  anticipated  from  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  could  never  be 
realized.  Some  new  measure  was  necessary,  or  all  the  benefits 
of  the  Compromise  would  go  to  the  North.  Such  a  measure 
presented  itself  in  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  put  forward  by 
Senator  Douglas  of  Illinois.  This  bill  was  framed  on  the 
untenable  theory  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  had  been  over 
thrown  by  the  Compromise  of  1850,  and  that  the  provision 
that  slavery  could  not  exist  north  of  36°  30'  was  no  longer 
binding.  In  accordance  with  this  theory,  the  author  of  the 
bill  proposed  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  should  be  declared 
"inoperative  and  void  as  being  inconsistent  with  the  principle 
of  non-intervention  by  Congress  with  slavery  in  the  states  and 
territories."  It  was  also  proposed  that  all  the  lands  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  36°  30'  should  be  organized  as 
territories  and  in  due  time  should  be  admitted  as  states,  either 
free  or  slave,  as  the  voters  of  each  territory  might  determine. 
The  great  question  was  thus  to  be  settled,  not  by  United  States 
law,  but  by  what  came  to  be  called  "Popular  Sovereignty.'7 

desirous  of  acquisitions  of  territory  to  the  south,  and  the  pro-slavery  leaders 
openly  favoring  Walker,  the  latter  was  not  punished.  In  1860  he  made 
another  descent  on  the  Central  American  coast.  This  time  he  was  captured, 
tried,  and  shot. 


§414]  KANSAS-NEBRASKA  LEGISLATION.  321 

412.  Indignation  of  the  North.  —  The  bill  aroused  the  greatest 
political  agitation  the  country  had  ever  known,  for  the  oppo 
nents  of  the  measure  took  the  ground  that  it  turned  over  to 
possible  slavery  a  vast  tract  that  had  forever  been  dedicated  to 
freedom.     They  said  it  was  an  outrageous  violation  of  contract 
to  take   away  half  of  the    Missouri   Compromise,  when  the 
advocates  of  slavery  had  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  the  other 
half,  as  they  had  in  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state 
above  the  line  of  36°  30'.    The  bill  was  opposed  with  the  utmost 
vigor  by  Seward,  Sumner,  and  other  anti-slavery  leaders,  but  it 
was  passed  and  became  a  law,  May  30,  1854. 

413.  Occupation  of  Kansas.  —  Now  began  a  race  for  the  set 
tlement   of  the   new  territory,  as ,  the   only  possible  way  in 
which  freedom  could   be  protected.     As  Kansas  bordered  on 
Missouri,  it  was  evident  that  here  was  to  be  the  battle  ground. 
Slave  owners  from  Missouri  rushed  in  to  take  possession  of  the 
soil,  but  the  people  of  the  North  were  not  slow  to  see  the 
danger.     An  Emigrant  Aid  Society  was  quickly  organized  in 
Massachusetts,  by  Eli  Thayer,  to  encourage  and  fit  out  emi 
grants  to  the  new  territory.     Though  the  slaveholders   were 
first  in  the  field,  people  from  the  North  soon  followed  in  ever 
increasing  numbers.     Party  spirit  ran  so  high  that  collisions 
were   inevitable.      There   was   universal   disorder   and    some 
bloodshed.     Guerrilla  bands  of  both  parties  wandered  over  the 
country  and  fought  wherever  they  met.     On  the  21st  of  May, 
1856,  the  town  of  Lawrence,    the  headquarters  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party,  was  attacked  by  marauders  from  Missouri,  popu 
larly  known  as  "  Border  Ruffians,"  and  several  of  the  most 
important   buildings  were   sacked  and  burned.     Three   days 
later,  a  deliberately  planned  massacre  of  slave  owners  was 
perpetrated  in  retaliation,  at  Pottawatomie,  by  an  anti-slavery 
band  led  by  John  Brown. 

414.  Advantages    of  the   North   in  the  Contest.  —  The  anti- 
slavery  cause  was  helped  by  the  unusual  severity  of  the  winter 
of  1855-1856,  which  made  it  evident  that  slavery  could  not 


322        THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PIERCE,    1853-1857.       [§415 


prosper  in  Kansas.     The  largest  slaveholder  in  the  territory 
was  obliged,  with  his  own  hands,  to  cut  and  haul  wood  to  keep 

his  negroes  warm,  and 
even  then  one  of  them 
froze  to  death  in  his 
bed.  Meanwhile,  the 
Free  State  men  in 
creased  rapidly  in 
numbers. 

415.  Assault  upon 
Sumner.  —  While  the 
Kansas  question  was 
raising  to  a  white 
heat  all  sections  of 
the  country,  an  event 
occurred  to  intensify 
the  excitement.  In 
the  course  of  the  long 
debate  in  Congress  on 
the  Kansas  troubles, 
Charles  Sumner,1  on 
the  19th  and  20th  of 
May,  1856,  delivered 
his  celebrated  speech, 
"  The  Crime  against 
CHARLES  SUMNER.  Kansas."  It  was  the 

1  Born  in  Boston,  1811;  died,  1874.  Graduated  at  Harvard,  1830;  studied 
law ;  traveled  in  Europe  and  became  noted  as  an  anti-slavery  orator,  1830-1850 ; 
helped  organize  the  Free  Soil  Party  in  1848 ;  was  elected  United  States  senator 
in  1851 ;  became  the  foremost  anti-slavery  advocate  in  the  Senate,  attracting 
universal  attention  by  his  speeches,  "Freedom  National;  Slavery  Sectional," 
and  "The  Crime  against  Kansas";  assaulted  by  Preston  S.  Brooks  of  South 
Carolina  (May  22, 1856) ;  was  twice  reflected  to  the  Senate ;  broke  with  Grant 
and  Republican  senators  after  delivering  a  violent  speech  against  President 
Grant,  and  was  removed  from  chairmanship  of  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs, 
1871;  supported  Greeley,  in  1872;  gave  his  last  efforts  to  securing  civil  rights 
for  colored  citizens  of  the  South. 


§416]  THE   REPUBLICAN  PARTY.  3'23 

most  terrible  philippic  ever  uttered  in  the  Senate,  and  it  exasper 
ated  the  men  of  the  South  beyond  measure.  Particularly  severe 
was  Sumner's  attack  on  Senator  Butler,  of  South  Carolina. 
Two  days  after  the  delivery  of  this  speech,  Sumner  was  writ 
ing  a  letter  at  his  desk,  after  the  Senate  had  adjourned,  when 
he  was  approached  by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  from  South  Carolina, 
a  nephew  of  Butler  and  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives.  Brooks  struck  Sumner  repeated  blows  on  the  head  with 
a  cane  and  felled  him  to  the  floor.  The  injuries  Sumner  re 
ceived  affected  his  spine  and  were  so  serious  that  it  was 
more  than  three  years  before  he  could  be  restored  to  a  fair 
amount  of  vigor.  While,  in  the  South,  a  few  persons  depre 
cated  the  assault,  Brooks  was  welcomed  by  the  masses  as  a 
hero.  In  the  North  the  attack  was  universally  condemned, 
and  stirred  the  deepest  indignation.  An  effort  was  made  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  to  expel  Brooks,  but  only  one 
Southerner  voted  for  his  expulsion,  and  the  motion  failed  to 
receive  the  necessary  two  thirds  majority.  A  severe  vote  of 
censure,  however,  was  passed  by  a  large  majority;  whereupon 
Brooks  resigned  his  place,  and  appealed  to  his  constituents  for 
indorsement  and  reelection.  In  the  election  that  followed, 
only  six  votes  were  cast  against  him.  The  speech,  the  assault, 
and  the  indorsement  of  Brooks  inflamed  every  part  of  the 
country. 

THE   REPUBLICAN  PARTY. 

416.  Origin  of  the  Republican  Party.  —  It  was  during  the 
excitement  that  followed  the  assault  on  Sumner  that  politicians 
prepared  for  the  coming  Presidential  election  of  1856.  The 
overwhelming  defeat  of  the  Whigs  at  the  election  in  1852 
seemed  at  the  time  to  give  the  Democrats  a  long  lease  of  power. 
In  reality,  they  soon  found  themselves  confronted  by  political 
foes  more  determined  than  the  Whigs.  The  old  Whig  party 
had  been  shattered  by  differences  on  the  question  of  slavery. 
Evidently  there  was  call  for  a  new  party  on  the  great  ques 
tions  now  at  issue,  and  the  Republican  party  was  the  result 


324        THE   ADMINISTRATION  OF  PIERCE,    1853-1857.      [§417 

At  a  political  meeting  held  at  Ripon,  Wisconsin,  in  May,  1854, 
it  was  resolved  that  another  party  should  be  formed  and  that 
it  should  be  called  "  Republican."  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  the  first  formal  adoption  of  the  name,  which  was  probably 
due  to  a  suggestion  of  Horace  Greeley,  and  the  publication  of 
an  elaborate  platform  were  the  work  of  a  convention  held  at 
Jackson,  Michigan,  on  the  6th  of  July  following.  The  new 
party  designation  was  immediately  adopted  by  state  conven 
tions  in  Maine,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa. 
So  extremely  vigorous  was  the  organization  of  the  Republi 
cans,  that,  in  the  fall  of  1854,  they  elected  enough  members 
to  control  the  House  of  Representatives  and  chose  as  Speaker, 
Nathaniel  P.  Banks,  of  Massachusetts.  The  first  National 
Convention  of  the  party  was  held  at  Pittsburgh  on  February 
22,  1856 ;  but  it  was  not  until  June  17,  at  Philadelphia,  that 
a  platform  was  adopted  and  candidates  for  the  Presidency  and 
Vice  Presidency  were  chosen.  The  platform  declared  that 
"  the  Constitution  confers  upon  Congress  sovereign  power  over 
the  Territories  of  the  United  States  for  their  government,  and 
that  in  the  exercise  of  this  power,  it  is  both  the  right  and  the 
imperative  duty  of  Congress  to  prohibit  in  the  Territories  those 
twin  relics  of  barbarism,  polygamy  and  slavery."  Upon  the 
stand  thus  taken,  the  Republicans  soon  secured  political  su 
premacy  in  the  North  and  West. 

417.  The  Campaign  of  1856.  —  The  Republicans  nominated 
John  C.  Fremont1  of  California,  a  famous  explorer  of  the 
West,  for  President,  and  William  L.  Dayton  of  New  Jersey 
for  Vice  President.  The  Democrats,  shelving  the  now  un- 

1  Born  in  Georgia,  1818;  died,  1890.  Was  educated  in  Charleston,  S.C.; 
served  a  short  term  in  the  navy,  then  joined  the  United  States  Topographical 
Engineers,  and  explored  a  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1842 ;  explored, 
with  great  energy  and  skill,  Utah,  the  basin  of  the  Columbia,  and  the  passes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  1843-1844;  conducted  other  explorations  from  the  Santa 
Fe  to  Sacramento  and  in  Southern  California,  from  1846  to  1854,  and  gained 
for  himself  the  title  of  "  Pathfinder  "  ;  was  nominated  and  defeated  for  Presi 
dent  in  1850;  commanded  in  Missouri  in  1801,  and  in  Virginia  in  1862,  without 
great  success. 


§417] 


THE   REPUBLICAN   PARTY. 


325 


popular  Pierce,  nominated  James  Buchanan,1 — a  weak  char 
acter,  far  past  the  prime  of  life,  but  a  man  who  had  held  high 
positions  and  was  likely  to.  carry  the  important  state  of  Penn 
sylvania.  John  C.  Breckinridge  of  Kentucky  was  chosen  as 
Buchanan's  running  mate. 
Buchanan  won  at  the 
polls,  securing  one  hun 
dred  and  seventy-four 
electoral  votes  to  Fre 
mont's  one  hundred  and 
fourteen.  But  the  Re 
publicans  had  made  a 
better  fight  than  any  new 
party  had  ever  done  be 
fore  and  had  carried  most 
of  the  Northern  and  some 
of  the  Western  states. 
It  was  evident  that  the 
country  was  being  divided  JoHN  c  FBEMONT. 

sectionally  in  politics, — 

the  North  and  West  being  destined  to  become  more  and  more 
anti-slavery,  or  Republican,  the  South  to  be  overwhelmingly 
pro-slavery,  or  Democratic.  Many  persons,  especially  in  the 
South,  argued  that  this  state  of  things  would  warrant  a  dissolu 
tion  of  the  Union,  since  the  North  and  West  combined  might 
be  strong  enough  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  states. 


REFERENCES.  —  See  end  of  Chapter  XXVI. 


1  Born  in  Pennsylvania,  1791 ;  died,  1868.  Graduated  from  Dickinson  Col 
lege  in  1809 ;  studied  law ;  congressman  from  Pennsylvania,  1821-1831 ;  Minis 
ter  to  Russia,  1831-1833;  member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  1833-1845; 
Secretary  of  State,  1845-1849 ;  candidate  for  President,  1852 ;  Minister  to  Eng 
land,  1853-1856;  President  of  the  United  States,  1857-1861,  during  which  time 
his  temporizing  policy  was  severely  criticised. 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,  1857-1861. 
THE   SUPREME    COURT   AND   SLAVERY. 

418.  Dred  Scott  Decision.  —  Two  days  after  Buchanan's  in 
auguration,  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  a  decision  that  had  a 
tremendous  influence  on  public  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
question  of  slavery.  A  colored  man,  Dred  Scott  by  name,  was 
held  as  a  slave  in  Missouri,  but  having  been  taken  by  his 
master  into  Illinois  and  Minnesota,  he  brought  suit  in  a  United 
States  court  to  establish  his  freedom.  The  question  finally 
reached  the  Supreme  Court,  where  a  decision  was  rendered 
March  6,  1857.  The  court  held  :  - 

1.  That  negroes   had   not   been   regarded  as   citizens  by  the 

framers  of  the  Constitution,  and  that,  therefore,  they  could 
not  bring  suit  in  a  United  States  court. 

2.  That  the  Constitution  recognizes  the  right  of   property  in 

slaves,  and  recognizes  no  difference  between  such  property 
and  any  other,  and  that  therefore  Congress  could  not  limit 
the  right  of  property  in  slaves,  even  in  the  territories. 

3.  That  the  Missouri  Compromise,  limiting  the  right  of  prop 

erty  in  slaves,  was  unconstitutional,  and  therefore  null 
and  void  ;  and  that,  therefore,  slave  owners  could  carry 
their  slaves  into  any  part  of  the  territories,  and  hold  them 
as  such  without  regard  to  the  line  established  by  the 
Missouri  Compromise. 

The  opinion  was  rendered  by  Chief  Justice  Taney,1  and  was 
assented  to  by  a  majority  of  the  court.  Justices  McLean  and 

i  Born  in  Maryland,  1777;  died,  1864.  Graduated  from  Dickinson  College; 
studied  law  and  settled  in  Baltimore ;  was  a  Federalist  and  later  a  Jackson 

326 


§  419]  THE  SUPREME   COURT  AND   SLAVERY.  327 

Curtis,  however,  dissented,  and  Curtis  presented  an  elaborate 
dissenting  opinion.  The  importance  of  the  decision  lay  in  the 
fact  that  it  was  an  authori 
tative  approval  by  the  Su 
preme  Court  of  views 
advanced  by  Calhoun,  and 
generally  indorsed  by  the 
South. 

419.  The  Dissenting 
Opinion.  —  The  North,  nat 
urally,  accepted  the  views 
of  the  dissenting  opinion, 
which  held :  — 

1.  That  free  negroes  had 

been  citizens  before 
the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution. 

2.  That    the   Constitution 

,     ,  , .  ROGER  B.  TANEY. 

had    not    limited  the 

rights  of  such  negroes  as  citizens. 

3.  That  as  many  as  seven  Acts  had  been  passed  by  Congress 

limiting  slavery  in  the  territories,  and  that  these  Acts  had 
been  assented  to  by  Presidents  who  had  been  in  the  Con 
stitutional  Convention. 

4.  That  the  constitutionality  of  these  Acts  had  never  been 

questioned. 

5.  That  the  validity  of   the   Missouri   Compromise  was   not 

before  the  court,  and  that  the  dissenting  Justices  did 
"  not  hold  any  opinion  of  this  court,  or  any  court,  binding 
when  expressed  on  a  question  not  legitimately  before 
it." 


Democrat;  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  1831-1833;  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  Jackson,  he  removed  the  government  deposits 
from  the  bank,  but  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate ;  Chief  Justice  of  the 
United  States  from  1836  until  his  death. 


328          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,    1857-1801.       [§  420 

420.  Influence  of  the  Decision.  —  The  far-reaching  effects  of 
this  decision  were  at  once  apparent.     The  Republican  party 
had  been  organized  on  the  fundamental  avowal  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  Congress  to  keep  slavery  out  of  the  territories  (§  416). 
But  if  Congress  had  no  constitutional  right  to  interfere  with 
slavery  in  the  territories,  the  Republican  party  could  have  no 
right  to  exist.     The  decision  also  shattered  Douglas's  doctrine 
of  Popular  Sovereignty ;  for,  if  Congress  had  no  right  to  ex 
clude  slavery,  it  could  not  confer  such  a  right  upon  the  terri 
torial  legislature.     The  South  asked,  "  What  are  you  going  to 
do  about  it  ?  "     The  North  virtually  replied  that  it  adopted  the 
view  of  Justice  Curtis  and  rejected  the  decision  as  of  no  bind 
ing  force.     Many  persons  in  the  North  accepted  a  doctrine  that 
had  some  time  before  been  promulgated  by  Mr.  Seward,  —  that 
there  is  a  "  higher  law  "  of  right  and  morality  than  that  of  the 
Constitution. 

421.  Abolition  Orators.  —  Public  feeling  during  these  years 
was  much  intensified  in  the  North  by  the  political  speeches 
delivered  by  accomplished  orators  in  various  parts  of  the  coun 
try.     The  most   prominent   of  these   speakers   was   Wendell 
Phillips  of  Boston,  who  gave  his  life  chiefly  to  anti-slavery 
agitation  and  exerted  a  vast  influence.     His  work  was  supple 
mented  effectively  by  the  speeches  of  Theodore  Parker,  George 
William  Curtis,  Theodore  Tilton,  Anna  Dickinson,  and  others. 

422.  Two  Important  Books.  —  In  the  course  of  this  agitation, 
public  opinion  was  greatly  affected  by  the  appearance  of  two 
very  important  books  on  the  subject  of  slavery.     Mrs.  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe's    Uncle   Tom's  Cabin  appeared  in  1852.     Its 
object  was  to  represent  the  horrors  of  slavery,  and  it  proved  to 
be  one  of  the  most  influential  novels  ever  published.     Though 
it   was  intended  to  represent  slavery   in  the   strongest   pos 
sible  light,  the  picture  was  somewhat  relieved  for  the  peo 
ple  of  the  South  by  the  fact  that  the  worst  characters  in  the 
book  were  "  renegades  "  from  the  North.     Over  three  hundred 
thousand  copies  were  sold  within  a  year  of  its  publication,  and 


§  423] 


KANSAS   AND   UTAH. 


329 


in  the  course  of  five  years  it  had  powerfully  inflamed  the  feel 
ings  of  all  the  Northern  people.  In  1857,  appeared  H.  R. 
Helper's  Impending  Crisis  of  the  South.  It  was  written  by  a 
representative  of  the  "  poor  white "  class  of  North  Carolina, 
whose  purpose  was  to  ar 
raign  slavery  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  South 
ern  free  white  laborer. 
The  author  described 
Southern  society,  and 
showed  how  slavery  had 
reduced  the  poorer  white 
people  to  a  condition  of 
abject  misery.  The  book 
did  much  to  arouse  the 
fears  of  the  Southern  slave 
owners. 

KANSAS   AND   UTAH. 

423.  Buchanan's  Weak 
ness.  —  Meanwhile,  Presi 
dent  Buchanan  had  been 
showing  in  many  ways  that 
he  did  not  realize  the  grav 
ity  of  the  situation.  He 
was  an  old  man  and  inclined 

to  rely  on  Democratic  leaders  of  strong  pro-slavery  proclivities. 
Thus,  although  himself  a  Northerner,  he  had  little  support  from 
his  own  section.  His  Cabinet  contained  four  Southerners, 
while  the  Secretary  of  State,  General  Cass,  was  a  sympathizer 
with  the  Southern  attitude  toward  the  slavery  question. 

1  Born,  1811 ;  died,  1896.  Was  daughter  of  Rev.  Lyman  Beecher,  and  sister 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher;  married  Professor  Calvin  E.  Stowe  in  1836;  resided 
in  Cincinnati,  where  she  had  opportunities  of  acquiring  considerable  knowl 
edge  of  Southern  life ;  was  stirred  by  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  to  write  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin ;  wrote  many  other  novels  and  was  until  her  death  an  important 
literary  figure. 


HARRIET  BEECHER  STOWE.  * 


330          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,   1857-1861.       [§424 

Eventually  this  Cabinet  was  broken  up  and  a  stronger  one 
obtained  (§  441),  but  not  before  many  of  the  departments, 
especially  those  of  War  and  of  the  Treasury,  were  reduced  to 
a  state  of  great  disorganization.  Indeed,  so  badly  were  the 
finances  of  the  nation  managed,  that  treasury  notes  had  to  be 
issued  in  order  that  national  insolvency  might  be  avoided. 
Yet  more  than  once  President  Buchanan  proposed  to  Con 
gress  that  Cuba  should  be  purchased,  and  recommended  other 
rash  legislation,  which,  if  carried  out,  would  probably  have  led 
to  a  war  with  Mexico  and  the  states  of  Central  America. 


424.    Affairs  in  Kansas.  —  One  of  Buchanan's  most  important 
appointments  was  that  of  Robert  J.  Walker  of  Mississippi, 

who  had  been  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury 
under  Polk,  as  gov 
ernor  of  Kansas. 
Walker  understood 
that  he  was  to  cease 
trying  to  force  slav 
ery  upon  the  Kansas 
settlers,  but  was 
rather  to  attempt  to 
make  the  territory  a 
state  favorable  to  the 
Democrats.  On  this 
understanding  he  suc 
ceeded  in  inducing 
the  friends  of  freedom 
to  vote  for  members 
of  the  territorial  legis 
lature,  with  the  result 
JAMES  BUCHANAN.  that  they  obtained  a 

clear  majority  in  that 

body.      But  the  slavery  advocates,  at  a  convention  held  at 
Lecompton,  adopted  a  constitution  favoring  slavery,  with  a 


§426]  KANSAS  AND   UTAH.  331 

proviso  that  the  article  relating  to  the  institution  was  the  only 
one  that  should  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratification. 
Fearing  some  trick,  the  Free  State  people  stayed  away  from 
the  polls,  and  the  Lecompton  constitution  was  easily  carried 
by  a  partisan  vote.  Walker  then  went  to  Washington  in  order 
to  protest  against  conduct  which,  it  was  believed,  was  connived 
at  by  the  administration.  He  found  that  Buchanan  and  his 
advisers  were  hearty  advocates  of  the  Lecompton  constitution, 
whereupon  he  resigned  his  governorship. 

425.  Failure  of  the  Lecompton  Scheme.  —  Meanwhile,  the  Free 
State  legislature  of  Kansas  had  submitted  the  whole  Lecompton 
constitution  to  the  people,  and  it  had  been  rejected  by  over 
eleven  thousand  majority.     Yet  Buchanan,  in  a  special  message 
to  Congress,  urged  the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a  state  under 
the  obnoxious  instrument.     A  long  and  fierce  debate  was  the 
result,  Senator  Douglas,  to  his  credit,  standing  out  against  the 
majority  of  his  party.     The  pro-slavery  Democrats  were  obsti 
nate,  in  spite  of  many  warnings,  and  pushed  matters  to  a  vote. 
The  administration's  measure  for  making  Kansas  a  slave  state 
passed  the  Senate,  but  failed  in  the  House.     Later  a  discredit 
able  bill  attempting  to  bribe  Kansas  to  come  in  under  the  pro- 
slavery  constitution  passed  Congress;  but  the  Kansas  people 
refused  by  a  large  majority  to  enter  the  Union  hampered  by 
slavery,  even  if  they  could  thereby  acquire  a  large  grant  of 
public  lands.     The  bill  which  offered  Kansas  this  bribe  was 
popularly    known    as   "  Lecompton    Junior."      After    it    was 
rejected  by  the  Kansans,  affairs  in  the  region  became  com 
paratively  quiet.     The  territory  was  not  finally  admitted  as  a 
state  until  1861. 

426.  The  Mormons.  —  Buchanan  was  more  successful  in  his 
dealings  with  the  Mormons  of  Utah.     This  religious  sect  was 
founded  in    1830  by  their  Prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  and  was 
forced  to  move  steadily  westward  from  the  State  of  New  York. 
They  settled  first  in  Ohio,  then  in  Illinois,  where  in  1840  they 
founded  the  town  of   Nauvoo.     These  Latter-Day  Saints,  as 


332  ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,  1857-1861.        [§  427 

they  were  called,  soon  had  troubles,  without  great  fault  of 
their  own,  with  the  authorities  of  Illinois,  in  the  course  of 
which  Smith  was  arrested.  Shortly  after  he  was  shot  by  a 
mob  (June  21,  1844).  Brigham  Young  was  chosen  leader  of 
the  new  church  in  the  Prophet's  place,  and  the  next  year  the 
Mormons  left  Illinois.  After  many  vicissitudes,  a  settlement 
was  made  in  Utah,  and  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded  in  1848. 
The  next  year,  Young  was  elected  governor  of  Deseret,  as 
the  territory  was  first  named.  In  1850  Congress  established 
the  Territory  of  Utah,  and,  in  1851,  Young  became  its  authorized 
governor.  In  1852  he  proclaimed  polygamy  to  be  a  tenet  of 
the  Mormon  church.  This  and  other  causes  led  to  difficulties 
with  judges  and  other  officers,  of  the  United  States,  who  in 
consequence  left  Utah. 

427.  Buchanan's   Management    of    the   Mormon    Difficulty. — 

Affairs  soon  reached  such  a  pass  as  to  require  the  removal  of 
Brigham  Young  from  his  position  as  territorial  governor,  the 
Mormon  desperadoes,  under  the  name  of  Dariites,  or  "  destroying 
angels,"  having  inaugurated  a  small  reign  of  terror.  Buchanan 
supported  the  newly  appointed  governor,  Alfred  Gumming, 
with  forces  under  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  who  was 
much  harassed,  however,  by  the  destruction  of  his  supply 
trains.  Congress  hesitated  to  give  the  President  all  the  troops 
needed,  for  fear  he  might  use  them  in  Kansas ;  but  he  managed 
the  affair  well,  notwithstanding,  and  with  augmented  forces 
and  judicious  pardons  secured  comparative  tranquillity  in  Utah 
before  the  summer  of  1858.  But  Congress  still  refused  to  give 
so  strange  a  sect  the  right  either  to  form  a  state  or  to  elect 
their  own  officers.1 

THE    GREAT  DEBATES. 

428.  Lincoln  and  Douglas.  —  The  people  of  the  settled  por 
tions  of  the  country  were  more   interested  in  a  picturesque 
political  campaign  than  in  the  pacification  of  a  far-off  ter- 

i  Minnesota  was  admitted  as  a  free  state  in  1858,  and  Oregon  in  1859. 


428] 


THE   GREAT  DEBATES. 


333 


ritory.  The  term  of  Senator  Douglas  was  to  expire  in 
1859,  and  he  appealed  to  public  opinion  in  Illinois  for  re 
election.  TheBepub- 
licans  put  forward 
Abraham  Lincoln  as 
their  representative 
to  oppose  him.  The 
men  were  unlike  in 
almost  every  respect. 
Douglas1  in  early 
life  had  come  from 
Vermont  to  Illinois, 
where  he  had  risen 
to  distinction  as  a 
lawyer  and  a  debater. 
In  public  speech  he 
was  keen,  ingenious, 
and  powerful,  and 
his  leadership  of  the 
movement  in  behalf 
of  Popular  Sover 
eignty  had  given  him 
a  national  reputa 
tion.  Lincoln,2  on  the  other  hand,  had  been  born  to  the  most 
abject  poverty  in  Kentucky,  and  in  early  life  had  moved  with 

1  Born  ill  Vermont,  1813 ;  died,  1861.    After  suffering  many  hardships  in  his 
youth,  removed  to  Illinois,  and  began  to  practice  law  in  1834;  was  attorney- 
general  of  the  state,  1838;  secretary  of  state  for  Illinois,  1840;  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  1841 ;  was  in  the  United  States  House  of  Representatives,  1843- 
1847;  in  United  States  Senate,  1847-1861;  was  the  advocate  of  "  Popular  Sov 
ereignty"  in  the  territories,  and  gained  the  appellation  of  "  Little  Giant"  by 
the  fervor  and  power  of  his  advocacy ;  held  joint  debates  with  Lincoln  in  1858 ; 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  a  Presidential  nomination  in  1852  and  1856, 
and  for  the  Presidency  in  1860. 

2  Born  in  Kentucky,  February  12,  1809;  died  in  Washington,  April  15,  1865. 
Moved  to   Indiana  with  his  parents  in  1816;   to  Illinois  in  1830;    served  as 
private  and  captain  in  Black  Hawk  War  in  1832  ;  failed  as  a  storekeeper  in 
New  Salem,  Illinois;  studied  law  and  was  sent  to  the  legislature,  1834-1842; 


STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS. 


334          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,    1867-1801.       [§  428 

his  parents  to  Indiana,  and  then  to  Illinois.  In  his  boyhood 
he  had  lived  in  a  log  hut,  and  had  picked  up  almost  the  whole 
of  his  education  by  reading  and  study  at  odd  moments.  At 
length  he  studied  law,  and,  though  never  a  learned  lawyer,  he 
early  showed  remarkable  power  in  discovering  the  turning 
point  of  a  case,  and  presenting  it  with  such  clearness  and 
force  that  he  was  very  successful.  By  a  careful  study  of  a 
few  of  the  best  writers,  he  made  himself  a  master  of  accurate 


A  TYPICAL  PIONEER'S  CABIN.     Built  by  Lincoln's  father  when  he 
moved  to  Illinois. 

and  powerful  English  speech.  He  also  became  very  skillful 
as  a  judge  of  human  nature  and  in  the  art  of  persuading  an 
audience.  To  these  great  qualities  he  added  the  still  greater 
one  of  an  honesty  and  integrity  of  thought  and  character  so 
pronounced  and  transparent  that  he  was  generally  respected 
and  loved.  At  the  time  of  this  senatorial  contest,  Lincoln  was 
forty-nine  years  of  age ;  Douglas  was  forty-five. 

was  Whig  congressman  from  Springfield  district,  1847-1849 ;  came  forward  as 
a  debater  and  political  speaker  between  1850  and  1858 ;  made  himself  known 
to  the  entire  nation  by  his  debates  with  Douglas  in  1858,  by  his  Cooper  Insti 
tute  speech  of  February,  1860,  and  by  other  speeches;  was  nominated  by 
Republicans  and  elected  President,  1860;  issued  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
January  1,  1863;  reflected  President,  1864;  shot  by  John  Wilkes  Booth 
April  14,  1865. 


§430J  THE   GREAT   DEBATES. 

429.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  —  In  the  spring  of  1858, 
Lincoln  challenged  Douglas  to  a  series  of  public  debates  on  the 
great  questions  of  the  day.     They  arranged  for  seven  meetings 
in  different  parts  of  Illinois,  and  those  meetings  are  memorable 
for  the  thoroughness  with  which  questions  then  agitating  the 
nation  were  discussed.     Lincoln  at  the  outset  announced  the 
Republican  doctrine  that  slavery  was  entitled  to  the  protection 
of  Congress  where  it  existed,  but  that  it  could  and  ought  to  be 
prevented  from   going  into  the  territories  where    it  did  not 
already  exist.     Douglas,  throughout  the  discussion,  held  that 
the  Dred  Scott  Decision  was  binding,  and  tried  to  reconcile 
it  with   the   notion   of  Popular   Sovereignty.     Lincoln    very 
shrewdly  saw  the  impossibility  of  reconciling  these  two  views, 
and  used  his  advantage  with  great  skill  and  vigor. 

430.  The  Freeport  Doctrine. — The  turning  point  in  the  debates 
was  at  Freeport,  where  Lincoln  put  to  Douglas  this  question : 
"  Can  the  people  of  a  United  States  territory,  in  any  legal  way, 
against  the  will  of  any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  exclude 
slavery  from  its  limits  prior  to  the  formation  of  a  state  consti 
tution?  "     The  Republican  committee  managing  the  campaign, 
urged  Lincoln  not  to  ask  Douglas  the  question.     They  said, 
"If  Douglas  answers  'yes,'  he  will  surely  be  elected,  because 
the  people  of  Illinois  believe  in  Squatter  Sovereignty."     Lin 
coln's  reply  was  in  substance  :  "  Very  well,  if  he  answers  '  no,' 
he  cannot  be  elected  senator  in  Illinois.     If  he  answers  '  yes,' 
as  from  his  Squatter  Sovereignty  doctrine  he  will  be  obliged  to 
do,  he  will  offend  the  South  in  such  a  way  that  he  cannot  be 
elected  President  in  1860.     I  am  looking  for  the  larger  game." 
Lincoln  insisted  upon  asking  the  question,  and  his  prediction 
proved  true.     Douglas  answered  "yes,"  and  tried  to  reconcile 
Squatter   Sovereignty  with  the  Dred  Scott  Decision,  in  what 
came  to  be  known  as  the  "  Freeport  Doctrine  " ;  but  Lincoln 
pointed  out  with  great  power  that  such  a  reconciliation  was 
absolutely  impossible.     Though  Douglas  was  reflected  to  the 
Senate,  as  the  Republican  committee  predicted  he  would  be  if  the 


336          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§431 

question  were  asked,  the  rift  in  the  Democratic  party  soon  made 
it  apparent  that  its  Northern  and  Southern  sections  could  not 
unite  on  any  one  candidate  for  President.  Lincoln  had  accom 
plished  his  object,  though  he  had  lost  the  senator  ship. 

431.  Other  Speeches  of  Lincoln  and  Douglas. — In  1859,  Douglas 
spoke  and  wrote  much,  in  order  to  define  his  position  on  the 
relations  of  the  Federal  power  and  the  power  of  the  individ 
ual   states.     In   all   his   utterances   he   often   referred  to  the 
positions  held  by  Lincoln,  and,  especially  in  the   South,  he 
tried  to  recover  what  he  had  lost  in  the  discussion  of  what 
was  known  as  the    "Freeport  Doctrine."     Lincoln  delivered, 
at    Columbus    and    Cincinnati,    speeches    which   pointed   out 
with  merciless  logic  the  impossibility  of  Douglas's  contention. 
These   speeches   tersely   reproduced    the    arguments    he   had 
used  in  Illinois,  and   in   print   they  had   an  enormous  circu 
lation.     Lincoln's  prominence,  moreover,  was  greatly  increased 
by  a  masterly  speech  on  February  27,  1860,  at  the   Cooper 
Institute,  in  New  York  City.     Taking   as  his   subject,  "  The 
Crisis,"  he  analyzed   the   situation,  and  presented   it  with  a 
logical  force  and   clearness  which   placed   the  speech  in  the 
highest  rank   of   argumentative   orations.      This   speech,  and 
those  he  immediately  afterward  made  in  New  England,  caused 
Lincoln  to  be  better  known  throughout  the  East ;  he  was  already 
very  popular  in  the  West. 

JOHN  BROWN  AND  PUBLIC   OPINION. 

432.  John  Brown's  Raid.— In  the  later  months  of  1859  the 
country  in  all  its  parts  was  greatly  moved  by  a  fanatical  at 
tempt  to  induce  the  slaves  of  -Virginia  to  revolt  and  insist  upon 
freedom.     John  Brown,1  who,  as  we  have  seen,  played  a  con- 

1  Born  in  Connecticut,  1800;  died,  1859.  Early  moved  to  Ohio  and  became 
an  earnest  and  uncompromising  abolitionist ;  went  to  Kansas  in  1855  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  troubles  that  ensued  ;  l§d  in  the  "  Pottawatomie  Massa 
cre"  of  1856;  returned  to  the  East  and  matured  plans  for  an  invasion  of  the 
South  in  1859;  made  the  attack  on  Harper's  Ferry,  October  16;  executed, 
December  2,  1859. 


§432] 


JOHN  BROWN  AND   PUBLIC   OPINION. 


337 


spicuous  part  in  the  Kansas  difficulties,  held  the  views  of  the 
abolitionists  with  all  the  stern  severity  of  a  seventeenth  cen 
tury  Puritan.  He  believed  that  slavery  was  the  "  sum  of  all 
abominations,"  and  that  he  must  devote  himself  to  its  over 
throw.  In  July,  1859,  he  rented  two  houses  on.  the  Maryland 
side  of  the  Potomac,  about  four  miles  from  Harper's  Ferry. 
Here  arms  were  collected, 
and  on  the  16th  of  October 
Brown  mustered  eighteen 
men,  five  of  whom  were 
negroes,  for  his  intended 
attack.  They  cut  the  tele 
graph  wires,  and  seized 
the  watchman  on  the 
bridge ;  then,  crossing  to 
the  Virginia  side,  Brown 
and  two  followers  broke 
into  the  United  States 
armory,  and,  binding  the 
watchman,  remained  on 
guard.  Before  midnight 
he  was  master  of  Harper's 
Ferry.  But  the  inevitable 
result  followed.  The  ne 
groes  refused  to  revolt,  and  soon  the  raiders  were  surrounded 
by  an  overwhelming  force.  They  fought  desperately,  and  did 
not  surrender  until,  of  the  nineteen,  ten  had  been  killed.  Four 
escaped  and  five  were  taken  prisoners.  Brown  himself,  after 
receiving  several  wounds  in  the  head  and  body,  was  cut  down 
and  captured.  Notwithstanding  his  wounds,  he  was  brought 
to  trial  eight  days  after  his  arrest  and,  after  a  fair  examination, 
was  condemned  to  be  hanged  on  the  2d  of  December.  He  died 
in  the  unwavering  belief  that  he  had  contributed  to  a  great 
cause.  Almost  the  whole  nation  was  thrown  into  an  uproar. 
Republicans  generally  disavowed  and  condemned  the  act,  but 
the  people  of  the  South  had  their  fears  multiplied. 


JOHN  BROWN. 


838          ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§  433 

433.  Resolutions  of  Jefferson  Davis. — On  February  2,  1860, 
Jefferson  Davis,  who  had  already  come  to  be  recognized  as  the 
ablest  leader  of  the  Southern   Democrats,    submitted  to  the 
Senate  a  series  of  resolutions  designed  to  formulate  the  South 
ern  party  doctrine.     The   most  significant   and   important  of 
these  resolutions  was  the  fourth,  which  declared  that  "  neither 
Congress,  nor  a  Territorial  Legislature,  whether  by  direct  leg 
islation  or  by  legislation  of  an  indirect  and  unfriendly  charac 
ter,  possesses  power  to  annul  or  impair  the  constitutional  right 
of  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  to  take  his  slave  property 
into  the  common  territories,  and  there  hold  and  enjoy  the  same 
while  the  territorial  condition  remains."     This  resolution  was 
no  doubt  intended  not  only  to  formulate  a  doctrine  for  the 
guidance  of  the  South,  but  also  to  inflict  a  fatal  stab  upon 
Douglas,  for  the  Illinois  Senator  had  taken  the  ground,  in  the 
"  Freeport   Doctrine,"  that  notwithstanding   the  Dred    Scott 
Decision,  the  people  of  a  territory  could  make  slavery  impos 
sible  by  what  he  called  "  unfriendly  legislation," 

434.  Movements  of  Public  Opinion  in  the  South. — While  these 
discussions  were  going  on  in  the  North,  public  opinion  was  also 
taking  form  in  the   South.     In  various  conventions,  notably 
the  one  held  at  Nashville  in  1850,  much  had  been  done  to 
foster  disunion  sentiments.     Secession  seemed  on  the   point 
of  immediate  accomplishment,  and  would  very  probably  have 
taken  place,  but  for  the  opposition  of   some   of  the  leading 
Whigs  of  the  South  and  the  adoption  of  the  Compromise  of 
1850.     Although  the  crisis  in  that  year  was  tided  over,  the 
South  did  not  cease  to  proclaim  that  if  ever  a  President  should 
be  elected  by  a  sectional  vote  secession  would  inevitably  fol 
low.     Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia,  and  some   of  the 
other  leading  Whigs  attempted  to  oppose  the  movement  as  im 
politic  and  unlikely  to  succeed,  but  they  were  swept  away  by 
an  irresistible  tide  of  public  opinion,  led  by  the  more  strenuous 
of  the  politicians.     This  movement  increased  in  violence  from 
1850  to  1860.     The  fact  that  the  reopening  of  the  foreign  slave 


§  435]          THE   PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN   OF    1860.  339 

trade  was  boldly  advocated  in  various  trade  conventions,  shows 
plainly  how  far  the  extreme  pro-slavery  men  were  willing  to  go. 

THE   PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN  OF   1860. 

435.  Democratic  Nominating  Conventions. — The  first  outbreak 
of  the  coming  storm  occurred  in  the  Democratic  National  Con 
vention  of  1860.  This  was  held  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
and  lasted  from  April  23  to  April  30.  The  delegates  of  the 
South  were  marshaled  by  William  L.  Yancey  of  Alabama; 
those  of  the  North  by  Senator  George  H.  Pugh  of  Ohio.  The 
main  contest  was  over  the  majority  and  minority  reports  of 
the  Committee  on  Platform.  While  the  Southern  delegates 
demanded  a  declaration  in  accordance  with  Davis's  resolution 
that  neither  Congress  nor  any  territorial  government  had  the 
right  to  legislate  in  regard  to  slavery  in  any  territory,  the 
delegates  of  the  North  planted  themselves  firmly  on  the  "  Free- 
port  Doctrine  "  of.  Popular  Sovereignty.  The  storm  raged  with 
the  utmost  fury,  in  the  midst  of  which  Yancey  declared  that 
if  the  Popular  Sovereignty  doctrine  were  adopted,  the  South 
ern  delegation  would  withdraw  from  the  Convention.  The 
followers  of  Douglas  secured  a  majority,  whereupon  Yancey 
and  his  followers  made  good  their  threat,  and  marched  out. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  practical  secession.  Though  the 
remaining  delegates  were  a  majority,  they  were  not  two-thirds 
of  the  Convention,  and,  therefore,  no  nomination  under  the  rule 
of  Democratic  conventions  could  be  made.  The  seceding  fac 
tion  adjourned  to  meet  at  Eichmond,  June  11,  the  others  at 
Baltimore,  June  18.  An  attempt  was  made  to  unite  them  at 
Baltimore,  but  both  sides  were  firm,  and  the  effort  was  fruitless. 
The  consequence  was  that  the  Democrats  finally  made  three 
nominations.  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky,  was  the 
candidate  of  the  Southern  wing ;  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illi 
nois,  of  the  Northern;  and  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  of  the 
Conservatives,  who  vainly  hoped  still  to  bring  the  factions 
together.  Thus  the  predictions  of  Lincoln  were  abundantly 
fulfilled. 


340          ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§436 


436.   The  Republican  Nominating  Convention.  —  The  Kepubli- 

can  Convention  met  on  the  16th  of  May,  in  Chicago.     Seward 

was  the  most  prominent  candidate,  but  the  names  of  Chase l  of 

Ohio,  Cameron  of  Pennsylvania,  Dayton  of  New  Jersey,  and 

-.M— — ^^a.  Bates      of      Missouri 

were  all  presented  by 
the  delegates  of  their 
respective  states.  Lin 
coln's  name  showed 
great  strength,  as  he 
was  supported  not  only 
by  Illinois,  but  also  by 
many  votes  from  Indi 
ana,  Kentucky,  Ohio, 
and  New  England. 
The  platform  adopted 
was  in  strict  accord 
ance  with  all  Lincoln's 
private  and  public  ut 
terances.  It  advocated 
no  interference  with 
slavery  where  it  ex 
isted,  no  extension  of 
slavery  into  the  terri 
tories,  and  no  reopening  of  the  slave  trade.  On  the  first  bal 
lot,  Seward  had  one  hundred  and  seventy-three  and  one-half 
votes,  and  Lincoln  followed  with  one  hundred  and  two.  On 
the  second,  Seward  had  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  and  a 

1  Born  in  New  Hampshire,  1808 ;  died,  1873.  Graduated  at  Dartmouth, 
1826;  moved  to  Cincinnati  and  practiced  law;  became  a  great  supporter  and 
advocate  of  the  anti-slavery  movement ;  was  elected  by  Democrats  and  Free 
Soilers  to  the  United  States  Senate,  1849 ;  governor  of  Ohio,  1856-1860 ;  was 
candidate  for  nomination  fo,r  the  Presidency,  1860;  became  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  performed  services  of  great  merit,  1861-1864 ;  was  not  in  perfect 
accord  with  Lincoln's  administration,  and  his  name  was  urged  by  his  friends 
for  the  Presidency  in  1864;  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1864,  and  served  till  his  death. 


SALMON  P.  CHASE. 


§438]          THE   PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN   OF   1860.  341 

half,  and  Lincoln  one  hundred  and  eighty-one.  The  excite 
ment  was  tremendous.  The  number  necessary  for  a  choice 
was  two  hundred  and  thirty-three.  On  the  third  ballot,  Lin 
coln  had  two  hundred  and  thirty-one  and  a  half,  while  Seward 
had  fallen  back  to  one  hundred  and  eighty.  There  was  no  re 
sisting  the  tide.  Before  the  figures  were  removed,  a  delegate 
from  Ohio  sprang  upon  his  chair,  and  reported  a  change  of  four 
votes  from  Chase  to  Lincoln.  In  an  instant,  one  of  the  tellers 
shouted,  "  Lincoln  ! "  whereupon  it  seemed  as  if  the  ten  thou 
sand  persons  present  had  become  insane  with  enthusiasm.  A 
cannon  on  the  roof  of  the  hall  announced  the  result  to  the  city 
in  accordance  with  a  preconcerted  understanding.  The  chair 
man  of  the  New  York  delegation,  William  M.  Evarts,  then 
moved  that  the  nomination  be  made  unanimous.  This  har 
monious  result  was  welcomed  by  Republicans  in  all  parts  of 
the  country. 

437.  The  Presidential   Canvass,  —  The    campaign   was    con 
ducted   with    a  vigor  and  an  enthusiasm   that  had  not  been 
known  since  1840.     Lincoln  made  no  speeches  and  wrote  no 
letters  for  publication,  but  made  himself  accessible  at  Spring 
field  to  all  callers  who  might  care  to  meet  him.     But  such  a 
course  was  not  followed  by  the  Democrats.     No  progress  was 
made  toward  reunion.     On  the  contrary,  the  Breckinridge,  or 
Southern  wing,  waged  unrelenting  war  on   Douglas,  both    in 
discussion  and    in   the  promise  of   distribution  of  patronage. 
Douglas  was  not  slow  to  retaliate.     He  entered  at  once  on  an 
extensive  campaigning  tour  and  made  speeches  in  many  states, 
both  North  and  South. 

438.  The  Position  of  Douglas.  —  The  most  important  utter 
ance  of  all  the  campaign  was  one  made  by  Douglas  at  Norfolk, 
Virginia.     He  was  asked  in  writing  whether  he  was  in  favor 
of  maintaining  the  Union  by  force.     He  declared,  without  a 
moment's  hesitation :    "  I  answer  emphatically  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  all  others  in 
authority  under  him,  to  enforce  the  laws,  and  I,  as  in  duty 


342          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§439 

bound  by  my  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Constitution,  would  do 
all  in  my  power  to  aid  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
in  maintaining  the  laws  against  all  resistance  to  them,  come 
from  what  quarter  it  might.  In  other  words,  I  think  the  Presi 
dent,  whoever  he  may  be,  should  treat  all  attempts  to  break  up 
the  Union,  by  resistance  to  the  laws,  as  Old  Hickory  treated 
the  nullifiers  in  1832."  The  South  made  the  fatal  mistake  of 
supposing  that  this  view  was  not  held  by  a  large  majority  of  the 
Democrats  of  the  North.  In  reality,  it  was  this  view,  so  frankly 
expressed  by  Douglas,  that  finally  united  an  overwhelming 
majority  of  the  Northern  Democrats  in  supporting,  with  more 
or  less  heartiness,  the  Republicans  in  the  great  war  that  was 
at  hand. 

439.  Result  of  the  Election.  - —  In  the  election,  Lincoln  re 
ceived  one  hundred  and  eighty  electoral  votes  ;  Breckinridge, 
seventy-two ;  Bell,  thirty-nine  ;  and  Douglas,  twelve.     Lincoln 
received  the  vote  of  every  free  state  except  New  Jersey,  whose 
vote  was  divided,  four  electors  voting  for  Lincoln,  and  three 
for  Douglas.     Douglas,  in  addition   to  the  three  votes  from 
New  Jersey,  received  nine  from  Missouri ;  those  of  the  other 
Southern  states  were  divided  between  Breckinridge  and  Bell. 

SECESSION   OF   THE   SOUTH. 

440.  Secession  of  South  Carolina  and  Other  States.  —  At  the 

time  of  the  election,  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  was  in 
session.  As  soon  as  the  result  was  known,  that  body  called  a 
State  Convention  to  meet  and  consider  the  situation.  The 
Convention  met,  and  on  the  20th  of  December,  repealed  the 
Act  ratifying  the  Constitution,  and  declared  that  the  union 
between  South  Carolina  and  the  other  states  was  dissolved. 
Before  Lincoln's  inauguration,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Florida  had  followed  the  example  of 
South  Carolina.  They  seized  all  the  military  posts  of  the 
United  States  within  their  territory,  a  procedure  that  had  been 
made  easy  by  the  strange  doctrine  of  Buchanan  that,  although 


§442]  SECESSION   OF    THE   SOUTH.  343 

a  state  had  no  right  to  secede,  the  United  States  had  no 
right  to  prevent  it  from  seceding  and  carrying  United  States 
property  with  it. 

441.  Opposition  to  the  Seceders.  — The  first  step  in  opposition 
to  the  seceders  was  taken  by  Major  Eobert  Anderson  of  Ken 
tucky,  who  abandoned  the  untenable  Fort  Moultrie  of  which  he 
was  in  charge,  and  posted  himself  in  FortSumter,  which,  being 
on  an  island,  could  be  more  easily  held  for  the  Union  if  succor 
were   speedily   provided  by   the   authorities   in   Washington. 
The  latter  were  vacillating,  however,  or   else   were   in   open 
sympathy  with  the  secessionists.     The  President  was  at  least 
strong  enough   to  resist   the  demand   of   the  South   Carolina 
Commissioners  that  Anderson  should  be  ordered  to  evacuate 
Fort  Sumter,  and  he  also  refused  to  receive  further  communi 
cations  from  the  commissioners.     Finally,  too,  he  surrounded 
himself  with  a  loyal  Cabinet,  through  resignations  which  were 
voluntary,  but  should  have  been  demanded.     Chief  among  his 
new  advisers  were  Jeremiah  S.  Black  of  Pennsylvania,  Sec 
retary  of  State ;  Edwin  M.  Stanton  of  Pennsylvania,  Attorney- 
General ;   Joseph  Holt  of  Kentucky,  Secretary  of  War;   and 
John  A.  Dix1  of  New  York,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

442.  The  Star  of  the  West. — The  reorganized  Cabinet  insisted 
on  reenforcing  Anderson  at  Fort  Sumter,  but  the  attempt  was 
made  only  with  a  merchant  steamer,  the  Star  of  the  West,  which 
turned  back  at  the  fire  of  the  Carolinian  batteries  (January 
9,  1861).     This  rather  weak  step  served  the  Southerners  with 
matter   for  indignation  and  for  charges  that  the  North  was 
bent  on  war.     It  also  led  to  the  discovery  that  Jacob  Thomp 
son  of  Mississippi,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  had  warned 
the  South  Carolinians  of  the  intended  reinforcement.    Thorn  p- 

1  General  Dix  is  still  remembered  for  his  famous  order  to  his  subordinates : 
"  If  any  man  attempts  to  haul  down  the  American  flag,  shoot  him  on  the 
spot."  With  the  spirit  of  this  order,  General  Winfield  Scott,  who,  old  as  he  was, 
had  been  laboring  for  months  to  get  Buchanan  into  an  attitude  of  aggressive 
resistance,  heartily  concurred. 


344          ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§443 


son  at  once  resigned,  and  Buchanan  arranged  a  sort  of  armis 
tice  with  the  Southerners  still  in  Congress,  by  which  he  was 
to  be  allowed  to  finish  his  administration  in  peace,  it  being 
understood  that  the  forts  should  be  neither  reenforced  nor 
captured. 

443.  Last  Attempts  at  Compromise. — In  the  course  of  1860  and 
the  early  part  of  1861,  several  attempts  were  made  to  reach 
a  compromise.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  one  intro 
duced  by  Senator  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  December  18, 1860. 
He  proposed  a  constitutional  amendment  in  which  the  main 
clauses  should  prohibit  slavery  north  of  36°  30',  but  protect  it, 
as  other  property  is  protected,  in  all  territory  south  of  that  line, 
and  should  arrange  for  admitting  states  north  or  south  of  that 
line,  with  or  without  slavery,  as  their  constitutions  might 
provide.  While  the  Compromise  was  before  a  committee  of 
thirteen,  of  which  Seward  was  the  most  prominent  Republican 
and  Jefferson  Davis  the  most  prominent  Democrat,  Seward 
was  offered  by  Lincoln  the  Secretaryship  of  State.  Lincoln 
wrote,  "  On  the  territorial  question,  I  am  inflexible."  In 
^^^^^  further  explanation  he  said 

that  the  adoption  of  the 
Compromise  would  only 
postpone  the  difficulties 
that  then  confronted  the 
nation.  In  the  committee, 
the  Republicans  voted 
against  the  Compromise, 
and  Davis  of  Mississippi, 
and  Toombs  of  Georgia, 
:'  voted  with  them.  The  Re- 

CONFEDERATE   CAPITOL,    MONTGOMERY.  ,-,.  -T  T 

ALABAMA  publicans  were  responsible 

for  its  defeat.    On  January 

3,  1861,  Crittenden  proposed  that  the  whole  subject  of  his 
Compromise  be  submitted  to  a  direct  vote  of  the  people. 
Douglas  powerfully  supported  the  proposition;  but  Davis,  in 


§444] 


SECESSION  OF   THE   SOUTH. 


345 


an  elaborate  speech  in  behalf  of  the  South,  made  it  apparent 
that  compromise  was  now  impossible.  Other  minor  attempts 
met  with  similar  failure. 

444.  Southern  Confederacy  Formed.  —  Soon  after  the  Ordi 
nances  of  Secession  were  passed  by  the  several  Southern 
states,  their  repre 
sentatives,  with  only- 
two  exceptions,  with 
drew,  one  by  one,  from 
Congress.  The  Seces 
sion  Conventions  ap 
pointed  delegates  in 
number  equal  to  their 
former  senators  and  rep 
resentatives  at  Wash 
ington,  and  the  mem 
bers  so  appointed  met 
at  Montgomery,  Ala 
bama,  February  4, 1861, 
to  form  a  Southern 
Confederacy.  Presi 
dent  Buchanan  offered 
no  opposition  to  this 
movement.  The  body 
was  soon  organized  by  JEFFERSON  DAVIS. 

the  choice  of  Howell 

Cobb,  of  Georgia,  as  chairman.  A  provisional  government  for 
one  year,  under  the  name,  "  The  Confederate  States  of  Amer 
ica,"  was  adopted  February  8,  and  the  following  day  Jeffer 
son  Davis l  was  chosen  President  of  the  Confederacy,  and 

1  Born  in  Kentucky,  June  3,  1808;  died,  December  6,  1889.  Graduated  at 
West  Point,  1828 ;  served  in  Black  Hawk  War  ;  resigned,  and  became  a  planter 
in  Mississippi;  congressman,  1845-1846;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican 
War ;  United  States  senator,  1847-1851  and  1857-1861 ;  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  governorship  of  Mississippi,  1851 ;  Secretary  of  War  under  Pierce,  1853- 
1857 :  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  in  January,  1861 ;  was  chosen  President 
of  the  Confederacy,  February  9,  1861;  was  confined  as  prisoner  at  Fortress 


346          ADMINISTRATION   OF  BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.        [§  445 

Alexander  H.  Stephens/  of  Georgia,  Vice  President.  The 
Constitution,  as  elaborated  and  completed,  was  adopted  on 
the  llth  of  March.  Stephens,  as  Vice  President,  was  for 
mally  inaugurated  on  the  10th  of  February,  and  Davis,  as 
President,  on  the  18th.  Thus  the  Confederate  government  was 
fully  installed  two  weeks  before  the  inauguration  of  Lincoln. 

445.    Stephens  and  Lincoln  on  the  Causes  of  the  War.  —  Soon 
after  the  inaugural  ceremonies  in  the  South,  the  newly  chosen 

Vice  President,  in  a  speech 
at  Savannah,  explained  the 
grounds  of  secession.  After 
referring  to  Thomas  Jeffer 
son,  he  said :  "  The  prevail 
ing  ideas  entertained  by 
him  and  most  of  the  lead 
ing  statesmen  of  the  time 
of  the  formation  of  the  old 
Constitution,  were  that  the 
enslavement  of  the  African 
was  in  violation  of  the  laws 
of  nature ;  that  it  was 
wrong  in  principle,  socially, 
morally,  and  politically.  .  .  . 
Our  government  is  founded 

'  ALEXANDER  H7s™rHKxs.  UP°n    6XaCt1^'  the  °PP°site 

idea ;    its    foundations   are 

laid,  its  corner-stone  rests  upon  the  great  truth  that  the  negro 
is  not  equal  to  the  white  man ;  that  slavery  —  subordination  to 


Monroe,  1865-1867;  was  indicted  for  treason  in  1866;  was  released  on  bail  in 
the  following  year,  and  was  never  put  on  trial. 

1  Born  in  Georgia,  1812;  died,  1883.  Graduated  at  University  of  Georgia, 
1832 ;  prominent  lawyer,  speaker  and  Whig  member  of  Congress  from  1843  to 
1859 ;  strongly  supported  Douglas  and  opposed  secession  in  1860 ;  sided  with  his 
state  and  became  Vice  President  of  the  Confederacy,  1861-1865;  often  differed 
from  Davis ;  sought  to  bring  about  peace  in  1864 ;  was  imprisoned  in  1865,  but 
was  soon  released ;  was  congressman  from  Georgia,  1875-1882 ;  elected  gov 
ernor  of  Georgia,  1882;  wrote  the  important  War  between  the  States. 


§  446]  SECESSION   OF  THE   SOUTH.  347 

the  superior  race  —  is  his  natural  and  normal  condition.  This, 
our  new  government,  is  the  first,  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
based  upon  this  great  physical,  philosophical,  and  moral 
truth." l  For  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  causes  of  the  war 
to  a  nutshell,  this  utterance  may  be  placed  in  contrast  with 
the  summary  of  the  Northern  views  by  Lincoln:  "Slavery 
is  wrong  and  must  not  be  extended.  No  state  can  in  any 
way  get  out  of  the  Union  without  the  consent  of  the  others. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  President  and  of  the  other  public  func 
tionaries  to  run  the  machine  as  it  is."  At  about  the  same 
time,  in  answer  to  an  inquiry,  Lincoln  wrote  to  Stephens : 
"  You  think  slavery  is  right,  and  ought  to  be  extended,  while 
we  think  it  is  wrong,  and  ought  to  be  restricted.  That,  I  sup 
pose,  is  the  rub.  It  certainly  is  the  only  substantial  difference 
between  us." 

446.  Misunderstandings  and  Mistakes.  —  While  the  South 
believed,  as  had  so  often  been  claimed  by  Calhoun  and  Davis, 
that  it  had  a  right  to  secede  and  that  the  North  had  no  right 
to  oppose  secession  with  force,  each  side  was  deceived  in  regard 
to  the  strength  and  real  purpose  of  the  other.  The  South 
made  the  mistake  of  believing  that  the  Douglas  Democrats 
would  not  unite  with  the  Republicans,  and  the  North  greatly 
underestimated  the  determination  and  the  readiness  for  war 
on  the  part  of  the  South.  Neither  side  seems  to  have  more 
than  half  believed  that  the  other  side  would  fight.  As  the 
South  was  far  more  ready  than  the  North,  it  was  certain  that, 
in  case  of  war,  the  South  would  gain  the  first  victories.  But 
as  the  North  had  far  greater  resources,  it  was  also  certain 
that,  with  equal  skill  and  determination,  the  North  would 
in  the  end  be  successful.  Each  side  held  that  its  own 
strength  would  prevent  the  other  side  from  entering  upon 
war.  Seward  was  so  optimistic  as  to  believe  that  as  soon  as 
the  North  showed  its  determination,  the  South  would  yield, 
and  war  would  be  "over  in  ninety  days."  If  each  side  had 

1  Cleveland,  Life  of  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  pp.  721-723. 


348          ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§441 


thoroughly  understood  the  other,  probably  no  war  would  have 
occurred.  But,  not  understanding  each  other,  "  one  side,"  as 
Lincoln  once  said,  "would  make  war  rather  than  let  the 
nation  survive,  and  the  other  would  accept  war  rather  than  let 
it  perish." 

THE   COUNTRY  IN   1860-1861. 

447.  The  Sections  on  the  Eve  of  the  Civil  War.  —  If  the  South 
had  been  in  a  condition  to  reason  calmly,  the  laying  of  the 

Atlantic  cable,  through 
the  efforts  of  Cyrus  W. 
Field,1  might  have  con 
vinced  its  leaders  that 
it  was  useless  to  uphold 
past  ideals  of  govern 
ment  and  a  belated 
institution  like  slavery 
in  the  face  of  advancing 
civilization.  The  same 
lesson  might  have  been 
taught  them  by  the  im 
mense  growth  of  the 
North  and  West  since 
1830.  The  increase  in 
area,  due  to  the  settle 
ment  of  the  Oregon 
dispute  and  to  the  terri 
tory  acquired  from  Mex 
ico  by  war  and  purcnase, 

had      helped      freedom 

CYRUS  W.  FIELD.  ,11  ^£ 

rather  than  slavery.     Of 

the  31,443,321  inhabitants  of  the  whole  country  in  1860,  only 
a  little  over  12,250,000  resided  in  the  slaveholding  states,  in- 

iBorn  in  Massachusetts,  1819 ;  died,  1892.  Engaged  in  business  in  New 
York  till  1853,  when  he  retired ;  conceived  the  idea  of  a  trans-Atlantic  sub 
marine  cable,  and  succeeded  in  forming  the  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and 
London  Telegraph  Company;  established  communication  in  1858,  but  the 


To  follow  p.  348. 


UNITED  STATES 
in  1861 

The  heavy  line  shows  the  limit  of 
territory  held  by  Confederates. 

\ 


from 


Greenwich         85 


§  448]  THE   COUNTRY   IN   1860-1861.  349 

eluding  Missouri  and  Delaware,  and  of  these  twelve  millions 
slightly  over  a  third  were  negroes,  who  were  in  the  main  slaves. 
Over  3,500,000  persons  lived  in  border  states  which  did  not  join 
the  Confederacy;  so  that  when  the  crisis  came,  only  about 
8,700,000  whites  in  the  South  were  to  be  matched  against  the 
19,000,000  whites  of  the  North  and  West.  The  advantage  on 
the  side  of  freedom  was  not  really  so  great  as  these  figures  would 
make  it;  for  the  Southerners  could  leave  their  slaves  at  work 
and  could  flock  to  the  front,  while  the  Northern  people  had  to 
keep  their  farms  and  factories  going  as  well  as  fight.  But 
when  all  allowances  are  made,  the  balance  in  favor  of  freedom 
was  very  great.  The  contrast  between  the  sections  is  ren 
dered  all  the  more  striking  when  we  observe  the  great  urban 
growth  in  the  North  and  West.  New  York  City  in  1860  had 
about  eight  hundred  thousand  inhabitants ;  the  South  con 
tained  only  two  fairly  large  cities,  —  New  Orleans  and  Balti 
more.  The  foreign  immigrants,  nearly  five  million  of  whom 
had  entered  the  country  since  1830,  when  immigration  prac 
tically  began,  saw  even  more  clearly  than  many  Americans 
the  differences  between  the  sections,  and  settled  mainly  in  the 
North  and  West. 

448.  Wealth  of  the  Country. — We  have  seen  that  in  Jackson's 
day  the  character  of  the  average  American  became  more  ener 
getic,  and  that  the  country  entered  upon  an  era  of  commercial 
expansion  which  even  the  panic  of  1837  could  not  permanently 
check.  The  growth  of  manufacturing  and  of  railroads  had 
been  enormous,  chiefly  in  the  North  and  West.  In  1860  one 
billion  dollars  were  invested  in  manufacturing,  six  billion  five 
hundred  million  in  farming.  In  the  latter  form  of  wealth  the 
South,  of  course,  had  its  share,  since  its  cotton  crops  were  very 
valuable.  But  the  cotton  was  shipped  in  northern  vessels  and 
was  exchanged  for  products  not  manufactured  in  the  South. 

cable  proved  worthless  in  a  few  weeks ;  later  established  the  Atlantic  Cable 
Company,  which  laid  cables  in  1865  and  1866,  the  latter  of  which  was  com 
pletely  successful ;  was  greatly  honored  for  this  achievement  both  in  America 
and  Europe. 


350          ADMINISTRATION   OF   BUCHANAN,    1857-1861.       [§  449 

In  the  matter  of  railroads,  a  great  gain  had  been  made  since 
1850,  twenty  of  the  thirty  thousand  miles  operated  in  1860 
having  been  laid  within  the  decade. 

449. "  Inventions.  —  It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  American 
inventiveness  kept  pace  with  the  country's  growth  in  popula 
tion  and  wealth.  Between  1830  and  1860,  Cyrus  H.  McCor- 
mick  (1809-1884)  invented  his  reaper,  which  revolutionized 
farming ;  S.  F.  B.  Morse  (1791-1872)  made  the  telegraph  an 
effective  means  of  communication;  Charles  Goodyear  (1800- 
1860)  succeeded  in  vulcanizing  india  rubber ;  and  Elias  Howe 
(1819-1867)  patented  his  sewing  machine.  The  same  epoch 
was  marked  by  the  growth  of  express  companies,  the  first  use 
of  postage  stamps,  the  perfection  of  the  daguerreotyping  pro 
cess,  the  use  of  anaesthetics,  and  the  employment  of  steam  fire 
engines.  When  we  remember  further  that  this  was  the  era  of 
such  great  scientists  as  Asa  Gray  (1810-1888)  the  botanist,  J. 
D.  Dana  (1813-1895)  the  mineralogist,  Joseph  Henry  (1797- 
1878)  the  physicist,  and  Louis  Agassiz  (1807-1873)  the  natu 
ralist,  as  well  as  of  the  great  historians,  William  H.  Prescott 
(1796-1859),  George  Bancroft  (1800-1891),  and  John  Lothrop 
Motley  (1814-1877),  and  of  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow, 
and  other  writers  already  mentioned,  we  can  perceive  that 
the  intellectual  growth  of  the  nation  had  kept  pace  with 
its  material  rWelopment.  Yet,  with  the  exception  of  Commo 
dore  Matthew  F.  Maury  (1806-1873),  —  who  won  fame  for  his 
work  in  physical  geography,  especially  of  the  sea,  —  and  of 
Edgar  Allan  Poe,  nearly  every  one  of  these  scientists  and 
authors  was  a  Northern  man.  From  all  points  of  view,  there 
fore,  the  odds  were  against  the  South  at  the  beginning  of  the 
great  struggle. 


REFERENCES.  — Rhodes's  History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Com 
promise  of  1850  is  the  most  thorough,  impartial,  and  authoritative  of  all 
general  works  on  the  subject ;  the  first  two  volumes  are  devoted  to  the 
years  from  1850  to  1860,  and  by  means  of  the  full  table  of  contents  and 
the  index,  the  student  may  obtain  a  fair  presentation  of  the  causes  of 


REFERENCES.  351 

the  War,  without  reading  the  whole.  Schouler's  United  States,  Vol.  V., 
is  also  full  and  valuable.  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  204-216  ;  John 
son,  American  Politics,  188-196  ;  Goldwin  Smith,  United  States  ;  Morse, 
Abraham  Lincoln  (2  vols.  "American  Statesmen  ");  Tarbell's  Abraham 
Lincoln,  Vol.  II.,  1-150,  contains  much  interesting  material  not  before 
published ;  Sanboru,  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Brown ;  Stephens,  War 
between  the  States,  Vol.  I.,  probably  presents  the  ablest  Southern  view; 
Pollard,  Lost  Cause  ;  Davis,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Gov 
ernment,  Vol.  I.  ;  Greeley,  American  Conflict,  Vol.  I.  ;  Grant,  Personal 
Memoirs,  Vol.  I.  ;  Sherman,  Memoirs;  Nicolay  and  Hay,  Abraham  Lin 
coln  (10  vols.);  Johnston,  American  Orations;  Garrison,  Life  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  Vols.  I.  and  II. ;  Buchanan,  Buchanan"1  s  Administration ; 
Dabney,  Defence  of  Virginia;  Longstreet,  From  Manassas  to  Appo- 
mattox;  F.Bancroft,  Life  of  William  H.  Seward  (2  vols.)  ;  Lothrop,  Wil 
liam  H.  Seward  ("American  Statesmen");  Storey,  Charles  Sumner 
("American  Statesmen");  T.  N.  Page,  The  Old  South;  H.  A.  Wise, 
Seven  Decades;  Trent,  W.  G.  Simms  ("American  Men  of  Letters")  ; 
Trent,  Southern  Statesmen  of  the  Old  Regime;  Channing  and  Hart, 
Guide  to  American  History. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


PART  VI. 

THE   CIVIL   WAR  AND   RECONSTRUCTION, 

1861-1869. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR. 

OPENING   OF    HOSTILITIES. 

450.  From  the  Election  to  the  Inauguration.  —  While  the 
South,  during  the  months  between  the  election  and  the  inaugu 
ration  of  Lincoln,  was  setting  up  its  new  government  arid 
preparing  for  war,  the  North  could  do  nothing.  President 
Buchanan,  as  we  have  already  seen,  scarcely  lifted  a  finger  to 
prevent  the  secession  of  the  Southern  states.  There  is  even 
reason  for  thinking  that  he  encouraged  it,1  although  in  the 
main  he  was  loyal.  Howell  Cobb  of  Georgia,  Buchanan's  Sec 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  John  B.  Floyd  of  Virginia,  Secretary 
of  War,  as  well  as  Secretary  Thompson,  actively  and  openly 
sympathized  with  the  Southern  leaders  and  gave  them  constant 
advice  and  assistance.  Floyd  even  received  Thomas  F.  Dray  ton, 

1  Senator  Clingman  relates  an  interview  with  Secretary  Thompson,  in 
which  the  Secretary  described  his  mission  (while  still  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior)  to  North  Carolina  to  induce  that  state  to  join  the  other  states  in 
seceding.  Thompson  described,  according  to  this  authority,  an  interview 
with  Buchanan,  held  just  before  he  set  out  on  this  mission,  and  used  the 
following  language:  "I  told  Mr.  Buchanan  all  you  said,  and  he  told  me  he 
wished  me  to  go,  and  hoped  I  might  succeed."  The  whole  passage  is  given 
in  Clingman's  Writings  and  Speeches,  pp.  526,  527,  and  in  Nicolay  and  Hay's 
Life  of  Lincoln,  Vol.  II.,  p.  325. 

353 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


PART  VI. 

THE   CIVIL   WAR  AND   RECONSTRUCTION, 

1861-1869. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR. 

OPENING   OE    HOSTILITIES. 

450.  From  the  Election  to  the  Inauguration.  —  While  the 
South,  during  the  months  between  the  election  and  the  inaugu 
ration  of  Lincoln,  was  setting  up  its  new  government  arid 
preparing  for  war,  the  North  could  do  nothing.  President 
Buchanan,  as  we  have  already  seen,  scarcely  lifted  a  finger  to 
prevent  the  secession  of  the  Southern  states.  There  is  even 
reason  for  thinking  that  he  encouraged  it,1  although  in  the 
main  he  was  loyal.  Howell  Cobb  of  Georgia,  Buchanan's  Sec 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  John  B.  Floyd  of  Virginia,  Secretary 
of  War,  as  well  as  Secretary  Thompson,  actively  and  openly 
sympathized  with  the  Southern  leaders  and  gave  them  constant 
advice  and  assistance.  Floyd  even  received  Thomas  F.  Dray  ton, 

1  Senator  Clingman  relates  an  interview  with  Secretary  Thompson,  in 
which  the  Secretary  described  his  mission  (while  still  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior)  to  North  Carolina  to  induce  that  state  to  join  the  other  states  in 
seceding.  Thompson  described,  according  to  this  authority,  an  interview 
with  Buchanan,  held  just  before  he  set  out  on  this  mission,  and  used  the 
following  language:  "  I  told  Mr.  Buchanan  all  you  said,  and  he  told  me  he 
wished  me  to  go,  and  hoped  I  might  succeed."  The  whole  passage  is  given 
in  Clingman's  Writings  and  Speeches,  pp.  526,  527,  and  in  Nicolay  and  Hay's 
Life  of  Lincoln,  Vol.  II.,  p.  325. 

353 


354  THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§451 

the  agent  of  South  Carolina,  and  negotiated  with  him  for  the 
sale  of  arms ;  and  W.  H.  Trescott,  the  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State,  was  in  constant  correspondence  with  Governor  Gist,  of 
South  Carolina,  in  regard  to  all  plans  for  secession.1  This 
activity  at  the  South  gave  great  alarm  to  the  North.  Lincoln 
remained  at  Springfield  until  it  was  time  to  start  for  Washing 
ton  for  the  inauguration,  but  he  was  beset  with  demands  for 
an  explanation  of  the  policy  which  he  would  pursue.  Though 
he  wrote  numerous  private  letters,  he  positively  refused  to  give 
out  a  word  for  publication.  His  letters,  since  published,  show 
that  he  never  wavered  from  his  purpose  to  defend  the  property 
of  the  United  States  government  in  the  South.  In  the  course 
of  his  journey  to  Washington,  he  made  several  speeches  that 
showed  remarkable  firmness,  united  with  a  deep  sense  of 
responsibility.  Hearing  in  Philadelphia,  from  two  independ 
ent  sources,  of  a  plot  to  assassinate  him  in  Baltimore,  he 
reluctantly  yielded  to  the  urgent  advice  of  his  friends,  and 
secretly  boarded  a  special  train  in  order  to  elude  possible 
assassins  by  passing  through  Baltimore  in  the  night. 

451.  Selection  of  the  Cabinet,  and  the  Inauguration. — Lincoln 
had  the  matter  of  choosing  a  Cabinet  long  under  consideration, 
but  its  membership  was  not  fully  settled  till  the  day  before  his 
inauguration.  His  chief  rivals  for  the  Presidency  were  given 
leading  positions.  The  Secretary  of  State  was  W.  H.  Seward 
of  New  York ;  Salmon  P.  Chase  of  Ohio  became  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury ;  Simon  Cameron  of  Pennsylvania,  Secretary  of 
War ;  Gideon  P.  Welles  of  Connecticut,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  In  his  inaugural  address,  the  President  spoke  with  a 
pathetic  sense  of  his  responsibility,  but  with  great  clearness 
of  conviction  as  to  the  nature  of  his  duty.  He  declared  that 
he  had  "  no  purpose  directly  or  indirectly  to  interfere  with  the 
institution  of  slavery  in  the  states"  where  it  existed,  and  that 
there  would  be  "no  bloodshed  or  violence  unless"  it  were 

1  See  Letters  from  the  Confederate  Archives,  given  in  Nicolay  and  Hay's 
Life  of  Lincoln,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  316-327. 


§452]  OPENING  OF   HOSTILITIES.  355 

"  forced  upon  the  national  authority."  His  purpose  he  defined 
by  saying,  "  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be  used  to  hold, 
occupy,  and  possess  the  property  and  places  belonging  to  the 
government  and  to  collect  the  duties  and  imposts."  Appeal 
ing  to  his  dissatisfied  fellow  countrymen,  he  said,  "  You  have 
no  oath  registered  in  heaven  to  destroy  the  government,  while 
I  shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  to  preserve,  protect,  and 
defend  it." 


FORT  SUMTKR. 

452.  The  Fall  of  Sumter.  —  One  after  another,  the  military 
posts  in  the  South  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  local 
authorities.  At  Charleston,  the  Federal  garrisons  of  two  of  the 
other  forts  withdrew  to  Fort  Sumter,  in  order  to  defend  it. 
But,  even  thus  reenforced,  it  was  short  of  ammunition  and 
provisions.  Buchanan,  in  January,  had  ordered  relief  sent; 
but  as  we  have  seen  (§  442),  the  Star  of  the  West  was  fired  upon, 
and  turned  back  to  New  York.  Lincoln,  in  accordance  with 
his  firm  but  conciliatory  policy,  sent  word  to  Governor  Pickens, 
of  South  Carolina,  that  he  had  made  provision  to  send  supplies 
to  Fort  Sumter.  The  Governor  decided  at  once  to  take  the  fort 
before  the  supplies  could  arrive,  and,  under  his  orders,  General 
Beauregard  opened  fire  upon  it  about  four  o'clock  on  the  morn 
ing  of  the  12th  of  April.  Two  days  later,  the  commander  of 


356  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§453 

the  fort,  Major  Anderson,  having  exhausted  food  and  ammuni 
tion,  was  obliged  to  take  down  his  flag  and  withdraw  from  his 

post.  No  lives  were  lost 
on  either  side.  This  ac 
tion  of  the  South  was  a 
strategic  blunder,  for  it 
enabled  the  North  to  en 
ter  upon  the  war  with  an 
enthusiasm  which  could 
otherwise  hardly  have 
been  secured. 

453.     First    Call    for 
Troops.  — The  firing  upon 

Sumter  sent  a  thrill  of  patriotic  determination  throughout  the 
North.  On  the  15th  of  April,  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation, 
declaring  that  a  combination  against  the  Union  had  been  formed, 
and  calling  for  an  enlistment  of  seventy-five  thousand  men  for 
three  months,  "  in  order  to  suppress  said  combination  and  to 
cause  the  laws  to  be  duly  executed."  He  also  called  upon  all 
loyal  citizens  to  aid  and  facilitate  "  this  effort  to  maintain 
the  honor,  the  integrity,  and  the  existence  of  our  National 
Union."  The  response  was  immediate  and  overwhelming. 
Douglas,  then  upon  his  dying  bed,  dictated  a  letter,  declaring 
that  the  only  course  left  for  patriotic  men  was  to  sustain  the 
Union  "  against  all  assailants."  The  course  of  Douglas  unques 
tionably  did  much  to  unite  all  parties  in  the  North.  In  every 
city  and  town  mass  meetings  were  instantly  held  and  com 
panies  and  regiments  were  formed.  Senator  Chandler  tele 
graphed  :  "  Michigan  will  send  you  fifty  thousand  men,  if  you 
desire."  Indiana,  whose  quota  was  five  thousand,  telegraphed 
that  ten  thousand  were  ready.  So  it  was  from  every  quarter 
of  the  North.  Men  came  in  such  numbers  that  instead  of 
seventy-five  thousand,  the  War  Department  accepted  more 
than  ninety-one  thousand.  In  the  South,  the  people  were 
likewise  fired  with  enthusiasm  and  drawn  nearer  together. 


§454]  MILITARY   AND   FINANCIAL   STRENGTH.  357 

There  was,  at  first,  an  opposition  to  secession  in  Virginia,  but 
reluctance  to  allow  troops  to  pass  over  her  soil  and  the  de 
mand  that  she  should  furnish  her  quota  against  the  South, 
turned  the  scale.  Four  of  the  border  states,  as  they  were  then 
called,  —  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas, 
—  now  passed  Ordinances  of  Secession.  Shortly  after  Vir 
ginia  seceded,  April  17,  the  capital  of  the  Confederacy  was 
transferred  from  Montgomery  to  Eichmond. 


MILITARY   AND   FINANCIAL   STRENGTH  OF   THE 
COMBATANTS. 

454.  Comparative  Numerical  Strength.  —  As  we  have  seen 
(§  447),  the  population  of  tl^e  seceded  states  was  a  little  less 
than  nine  millions,  of  whom  about  five  and  one-half  millions 
were  whites ;  while  the  population  of  the  other  states  was 
about  twenty-two  millions.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  a 
large  proportion  of  the  white  adult  males  in  the  South  was 
brought  into  action  through  public  opinion,  and  a  little  later,  a 
rigid  conscription  law,  including  all  able-bodied  men  between 
fifteen  and  fifty,  was  rigorously  enforced.  Old  men,  women, 
boys,  and  slaves  were  left  at  home  to  furnish  the  necessary  sup 
plies.  Thus  the  South  put  forth  almost  its  entire  strength  early 
in  the  war,  and  the  capture  of  territory  and  prisoners  continually 
lessened  its  resources;  while  the  very  opposite  was  the  case 
with  the  North.  While  the  war  was  going  on,  the  productive 
industries  of  the  Union  states  never  flagged,  and  the  population 
continued  to  increase  so  that  it  was  possible  to  have  a  larger 
army  at  the  end  of  the  war  than  at  the  beginning.  However, 
all  figures  comparing  the  armies  and  the  numbers  present  in 
individual  battles  are  somewhat  misleading,  from  the  fact  that 
in  the  Southern  army  teamsters  and  laborers  on  the  supply 
trains  were  generally  slaves,  not  enumerated.  Slaves  were  also 
employed  in  the  trenches.  In  the  Northern  armies,  on  the 
other  hand,  these  forms  of  service  were  generally  rendered 
by  enlisted  men. 


358  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§455 

455.  Comparative  Industries.  —  The  South  was  essentially  an 
agricultural  region,  depending  for  its  income  chiefly  upon  its 
exports  of  cotton  and  tobacco.  If  a  blockade  could  be  strin 
gently  enforced,  this  source  of  revenue  must  necessarily  be  cut 
off.  But  that  was  not  all.  The  supplies  which  the  South  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  importing  could  not  now  be  procured 
except  at  enormous  prices  and  in  very  small  quantities.  A 
few  facts  will  show  the  significance  of  this  condition.  In 
1860,  the  exports  of  cotton  amounted  in  value  to  about  two 
hundred  millions  of  dollars,  but  before  the  end  of  the  war, 
the  annual  income  from  that  source  was  not  more  than  four 
million  dollars.  The  inducement  to  run  the  blockade  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  best  cotton  c'ould  be  bought  in 
Charleston  at  four  or  five  cents  a  pound,  while  in  Liverpool, 
where  the  American  supply  had  been  cut  off,  the  price  per 
pound  was  .no  less  than  two  dollars  and  a  half.  Prospect  of 
profit  led  to  the  most  daring  risks.  Insurance  on  blockade 
running  vessels  rose  nearly  a  thousand  per  cent,  and  the  wages 
of  sea  captains  plying  between  Nassau  and  Southern  ports 
increased  from  thirty  to  one  thousand  pounds  sterling  per 
month.  As  we  shall  hereafter  see,  prices  rose  enormously  in 
the  South,  and  the  suffering  on  the  part  of  many  became 
almost  intolerable.  This  condition  of  affairs  might  have  been 
prevented,  if  the  South  before  the  war  had  given  itself  to 
the  development  of  varied  industries.  But,  with  all  the  able- 
bodied  men  in  the  field,  the  sudden  establishment  of  indus 
trial  activity  was  plainly  out  of  the  question.  In  the  North, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  conditions  were  very  different.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  a  high  protective  tariff  was  established, 
partly  to  provide  an  increased  revenue,  and  partly  to  encourage 
the  rapid  spread  of  home  industries.  The  consequence  was 
great  industrial  activity  throughout  the  entire  period  of  the 
war.  As  the  Northern  ports  were  all  open,  intercourse  with 
foreign  markets  was  easy,  and  the  rise  of  prices  was  not  so 
great  anywhere  as  to  cause  considerable  inconvenience.  In 
fact,  the  North  grew  steadily  in  wealth  during  the  war. 


§457]  MILITARY   AND   FINANCIAL   STRENGTH.  359 

456.  Financial  Methods  in  the  North.  —  The  cost  of  a  great  war 
is  always  so  enormous  that  all  the  resources  of  taxation  and 
credit  must  be  resorted  to.      The  necessities  of  the  North  were 
peculiarly  stringent  in  1861,  owing  to  the  fact  that  during 
Buchanan's  administration  the  Treasury  was  nearly  bankrupt 
(§  423).     As  soon  as  the  war  began,  the  financial  pressure  was 
felt  throughout  the  country,  and  before  the  end  of  1861,  the 
banks  everywhere  were  obliged  to  suspend  specie  payment.     A 
few  months  later,  Congress  authorized  an  issue  of  $150,000,000 
of  paper  currency,  and  made  it  legal  tender  for  the  payment  of 
all  debts.     In  1863,  the  amount  of  such  notes  was  increased  to 
$450,000,000 ;  and  from  the  color  of  the  ink  used,  they  came 
to  be  known  as  "  greenbacks."     As  they  were  not  redeemable  in 
gold  at  any  specific  time,  the  price  of  gold  began  to  rise  as  soon 
as  the  first  issue  was  made,  and  increased  as  the  war  progressed, 
until,  in  1864,  the  premium  on  gold  reached  its  highest  point,  — 
two  hundred  and  eighty-five  per  cent.   Of  course,  this  premium 
was  not  an  increase  in  the  value  of  gold,  but  a  decrease  in  the 
value  of  paper  currency.     As  the  current  money  became  cheap, 
the  prices  of  commodities  naturally  rose.     It  has  been  ascer 
tained  that  the  average  increase  in  the  prices  of  real  estate,  rents, 
and  goods  was  about  ninety  per  cent,  while  the  increase  in  the 
price  of  labor  was  only  about  sixty  per  cent.     Thus  it  is  evident 
that  the  men  of  means  profited  most,  or  suffered  least,  by  the  infla 
tion,  while  the  laborer  suffered  most.     Another  source  of  income 
was  the  issue  of  government  bonds  at  a  high  rate  of  interest. 
These  amounted  before  the  end  of  the  war  to  $2,850,000,000. 
As  during  the  first  years  of  the   contest  the  success  of  the 
North,  and  consequently  the  ability  of  the  government  to  pay, 
appeared  uncertain,  it  was  difficult  to  sell  the  bonds  except  at 
a  considerable  discount. 

457.  National  Banks.  —  An  ingenious  method  of  disposing  of 
a  large  part  of  the  bonds  was  devised.     A  law  was  enacted  in 
February,   1863,   authorizing  any   five  persons  to   organize    a 
National  Bank  on  easy  conditions.     Except  in  very  small  places, 


360  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§  458 

such  a  bank  was  required  to  have  a  capital  of  at  least  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  and  to  deposit,  with  the  Treasury  at 
Washington,  bonds  to  the  amount  of  one-third  of  its  capital. 
The  government  would  then  issue  notes  to  the  bank  to  the 
amount  of  ninety  per  cent  of  such  deposit,  such  notes  to  be 
used  by  the  bank  for  the  purposes  of  circulating  currency,  and 
to  be  redeemable  by  the  government  in  greenbacks.  The  re 
sponse  was  at  first  slow  ;  but  in  1864  a  new  impulse  was  given 
to  the  movement  by  an  act  levying  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent  on 
the  circulation  of  state  banks  —  a  law  designed  to  compel  state 
banks  to  become  national.  By  these  measures,  a  safe  and 
abundant  currency  was  provided.  In  addition  to  these  devices, 
a  high  internal  revenue  was  levied,  an  income  tax  was  provided, 
and  tariff  duties,  as  the  war  went  on,  were  greatly  increased. 

458.  Finances  in  the  South.  —  No  such  fertile  devices  were 
possible  in  the  South.     Bonds  were  issued,  but,  as  there  was 
little  or  no  capital  seeking  investment,  no  market  at  home 
could  be  found,  and  foreign  capitalists  would  not  run  great 
risks  till  the  issue  of  the  war  could  be  predicted  with  some 
confidence.     The  government  then  issued  notes  payable  six 
months  after  the  close  of  the  war.     With  the  diminishing  pros 
pects  of  the  South,  these  notes  rapidly  declined  in  value,  till 
they  became  practically  worthless.     Then  the  Confederate  Con 
gress   authorized   the   army  to  seize  provisions  and   supplies 
wherever  they  could  find  them,  and  to  offer  in  payment  bonds 
or  notes  at  prices  to  be  fixed  every  ninety  days.     Under  this 
financial  regime,  prices  rose  enormously,  and  the  consequent 
suffering  of  those  who  did  not  occupy  their  own  estates  or  were 
not  in  the  army  or  the  service  of  the  government,  was  well-nigh 
indescribable. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    SEAT   OF    WAR, 

459.  General  Features  of  the  War. — Without  some  knowl 
edge  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  country,  it  will  not 
be  easy  to  understand  why  the  war  progressed  so  slowly  as  it 


§460]  THE   SEAT  OF  WAR.  361 

did  in  the  East  and  so  rapidly  in  the  West.  As  the  South  had 
broken  away  from  the  Union,  and  the  North  was  trying  to 
bring  the  seceded  states  back  under  national  authority,  the 
North  was,  necessarily,  the  attacking  party,  while  the  South 
had  merely  to  act  on  the  defensive.  Though  two  important 
efforts  were  made  by  the  South  to  transfer  the  field  of  opera 
tions  to  the  North,  these  were  both  unsuccessful,  and  therefore 
the  war,  in  all  its  larger  features,  was  fought  in  the  South. 
This  fact  makes  it  necessary  to  look  for  a  moment  at  the 
physiographic  features  of  the  field  of  action. 

460.  Physical  Features  in  the  East.  —  The  Alleghany  Moun 
tains  and  the  Mississippi  Kiver  divided  the  Confederacy  into 
three  somewhat  distinct  parts.  The  eastern  portion,  which  lies 
between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Atlantic,  is  characterized  by  a 
succession  of  rivers  that  rise  in  the  mountains  and  flow  in  a 
southeasterly  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Potomac  and 
James.  To  advance  through  Virginia  to  Richmond,  it  was 
possible  for  the  Union  forces  to  go  by  water  to  the  mouth  of 
the  James  and  then  ascend  along  the  river,  or  to  cross 
the  Rappahannock,  the  Rapidan,  the  York,  and  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  besides  a  large  number  of  smaller  streams  which 
were  sometimes  swollen  to  the  volume  of  navigable  rivers. 
Much  of  the  intervening  region,  moreover,  was  swampy, 
and  at  times  almost  impassable.  East  of  the  Alleghanies, 
the  subordinate  range  known  as  the  Blue  Eidge  provides 
a  fertile,  intervening  valley,  through  which  the  Shenan- 
doah  flows  northward  into  the  Potomac  at  Harper's  Ferry. 
This  Valley  of  Virginia,  however,  near  the  northern  end,  is  sub 
divided  by  a  low  range  of  mountains  in  such  a  way  as  to  en 
able  an  army  driven  down  one  side  to  retreat  up  the  other. 
Across  the  Blue  Ridge  at  Manassas  Gap,  a  railroad  connects 
the  Valley  with  the  eastern  portion  of  Virginia  and  makes  it 
possible  to  transfer  troops  rapidly  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
At  Manassas,  this  railroad  crosses  an  important  Southern  line 
which  runs  from  Washington  to  Richmond  and  Lynchburg, 


362  THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§  461 

and  to  the  far  South.  This  crossing,  therefore,  was  of  the  first 
strategic  importance  in  the  war,  and  was  naturally  the  first 
point  of  collision. 

461.  Physical  Features  of  the  Wesc.  —  West  of  the  Allegha- 
nies  the  water  courses,  in  some  respects,  were  of  even  more 
importance  than  in  the  East.     The  Cumberland  River,  which 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  the  same  name,  flows  southwest,  and 
then,  turning  sharply  to  the  north,  empties  into  the  Ohio  some 
miles  above  Cairo.     The  Tennessee  flows  in  the  same  general 
direction,  but  bends  so  far  south  as  to  reach  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  and  then,  turning  northward  and  flowing  through 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  in  a  course  nearly  parallel  with  the 
Mississippi,  though  in  an  opposite   direction,  discharges  its 
waters  into  the  Ohio.     As  railroads  were  few  and  other  roads 
were  poor,  these  navigable  waters  were  of  the  utmost  impor 
tance  to  the  side  that  should  be  able  to  command  them.     Both 
antagonists  recognized  this  fact,  and,  therefore,  the  first  contest 
in  this  region  was  for  command  of  these  rivers.     Soon  after  the 
war  began,  the  Unionists  took  Cairo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio, 
and  the  Confederates  constructed  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  on 
the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  rivers,  at  points  not  far  from  the 
Ohio,  where  the  rivers  were  so  near  each  other  that  either  fort 
could  easily  reenforce  the  other.     In  this  way  each  side  hoped 
to  gain  command  of  the  rivers  for  purposes  of  transportation. 
The  Mississippi  also  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  Confederates 
at  Memphis,  at  Island  Number  10,  at  Vicksburg,  and  at  other 
points  of  less  importance.     West  of  the  Mississippi,  the  physi 
cal  features  of  the  country  were  of  less  military  consequence. 

DOMESTIC   AND  FOREIGN   COMPLICATIONS. 

462.  First  Bloodshed.  —  Among  those  in  the  North  who  had 
foreseen  the  conflict,  one  of  the  foremost  was  Governor  John  A. 
Andrew,  of  Massachusetts.  Inaugurated  early  in  January,  1861, 
he  had  set  about  preparing  for  hostilities  by  organizing  the 
state  militia  and  by  purchasing  arms  in  Europe.     Only  four 


§463]        DOMESTIC   AND   FOREIGN   COMPLICATIONS.  363 

days  after  the  call  for  troops,  therefore,  the  6th  Massachusetts 
Regiment  was  ready  to  move  to  Washington.  While  passing 
through  Baltimore,  the  regiment  was  attacked  by  a  mob  and 
several  men  were  killed.  This  was  the  first  bloodshed  of  the  war. 
The  road  through  Baltimore  was  closed,  and  all  trains  with  men 
and  supplies  were  for  several  months  obliged  to  pass  around  the 
city  by  way  of  Annapolis.  But  this  was  not  the  worst.  The 
railroad  from  Annapolis  to  Washington  was  torn  up  and  every 
telegraph  line  from  Washington  to  the  North  was  cut.  Exit 
from  the  capital  in  any  direc 
tion  was,  for  a  time,  made  im 
possible.  With  the  news  that 
Virginia  had  seceded,  came  the 
rumor  that  a  large  Southern 
force  was  on  the  march  to  take 
Washington.  General  Win- 
field  Scott,  then  in  command 
as  general  in  chief  of  the 

United  States  armies,  placed 

CONFEDERATE  FLAG. 

barricades  about  all  the  pub 
lic  buildings,  and  distributed  the  few  guns  he  had  at  the 
various  approaches  to  the  city.  There  were  only  twenty- 
five  hundred  troops  at  his  disposal.  But  officers  and  men  in 
the  departments  were  brought  into  service,  and  many  citizens 
enlisted.  The  women  and  children  were  ordered  out  of  town. 
During  all  this  terrible  excitement  and  anxiety,  a  committee 
from  Baltimore  appeared  before  the  President  and  protested 
that  the  soil  of  Maryland  should  not  be  "  polluted  "  by  troops 
designed  to  invade  the  South.  Lincoln  replied,  "We  must 
have  troops,  and,  as  they  can  neither  crawl  under  Maryland 
nor  fly  over  it,  they  must  come  across  it."  The  alarming 
rumor  proved  to  have  no  foundation.  The  South  was  not 
ready  for  an  attack  upon  the  capital. 

463.    The  Border  States.  —  The  great  fears  naturally  felt  with 
regard  to  the  secession  of  other  border  states  besides  Virginia 


364  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§  464 

were  gradually  relieved.  This  was  caused  partly  by  the  wise 
management  of  Lincoln,  partly  by  the  unexpected  enthusiasm 
throughout  the  North  in  responding  to  the  call  for  troops,  and 
partly  by  the  firmness  of  the  Union  sympathizers  in  those  states. 
Maryland,  Delaware,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri  did  not  'secede ; 
but  while  these  states  thus  remained  in  the  Union,  the  people 
were  divided  in  their  sympathies,  some  going  into  one  army,  and 
some  into  the  other.  Though  Tennessee  seceded  and  joined  the 
Confederacy,  many  of  her  people,  especially  in  the  Cumberland 
Mountains,  were  stanch  supporters  of  the  Union  throughout  the 
war.  On  the  other  hand,  in  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  there 
were  many  sympathizers  with  the  South,  and  nothing  but  the 
ability  and  the  energy  of  the  governors  of  those  states  and  the 
intense  loyalty  of  the  Unionists  kept  up  the  full  quota  of  their 
troops.  In  Virginia,  while  the  people  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
state  were  generally  Secessionists,  a  majority  of  those  west  of 
the  mountains  were  adherents  of  the  Union.  When,  therefore, 
Virginia  withdrew,  the  people  of  the  western  portion  voted  to 
break  away  from  the  rest  of  the  state,  and  on  December  31, 
1862,  Congress,  with  apparently  more  regard  to  necessity  than 
to  the  Constitution,  admitted  the  region  to  the  Union  as  West 
Virginia. 

464.  Foreign  Recognition.  —  On  May  13,  1861,  Great  Britain 
issued  a  "  Proclamation  of  Neutrality,"  which,  in  effect,  recog 
nized  the  Confederates  as  belligerents,  and  this  example  was 
soon  imitated  by  the  other  European  states.     Thus  the  Con 
federates  obtained  the  right  to  have  war  vessels,  and  to  take 
refuge   for  repairs  and  needed  supplies   in  foreign   harbors. 
The  consular  agents  of  the  United  States  reported  that  Southern 
agents  were  buying  arms  wherever  they  could  be  obtained  in 
Europe. 

465.  Equipment  and  Further  Preparation.  —  In  the  beginning 
of  the  war,  though  enlistments  were  rapid,   preparations  for 
an  advance  were  necessarily  slow.     The  Southern  ports  were  de 
clared  blockaded,  but  the  North  had  not  enough  ships  on  hand 


§  466]  MILITARY   MOVEMENTS   OF   1861.  365 

with  which  to  make  the  blockade  effective.  Coasting  vessels 
of  all  kinds  were  rapidly  brought  into  the  service,  supplies  had 
to  be  collected,  and  troops  had  to  be  equipped  and  drilled. 
The  Confederates  were  more  rapidly  organized,  because  their 
preparations  for  war  had  been  much  more  advanced  when  the 
war  began,  although  they,  too,  were  short  of  arms  and  powder. 
Before  the  North  was  ready  to  move,  the  Confederacy  had  formed 
a  strong  line  across  Virginia  from  Harper's  Ferry  to  Norfolk. 
It  had  also  placed  strong  fortifications  along  the  Mississippi 
Biver,  the  Mexican  border,  and  about  the  Atlantic  ports.  A 
little  later  the  construction  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  on 
the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  rivers,  protected  the  northern 
frontiers.  Thus  the  Confederacy  was  nearly  surrounded  with 
a  line  of  defenses.  Early  in  May,  when  the  Northern  troops 
reached  the  line  of  action,  skirmishing  began,  but  no  important 
engagement  occurred  before  July.  On  the  4th  of  July,  Con 
gress  met  in  special  session.  Lincoln,  in  his  message,  after  re 
viewing  the  situation,  said :  "  This  issue  embraces  more  than 
the  fate  of  these  United  States.  It  presents  to  the  whole  fam 
ily  of  man  the  question  whether  a  constitutional  republic  or 
democracy  —  a  government  of  the  people  by  the  same  people  — 
can  or  cannot  maintain  its  territorial  integrity  against  its  own 
domestic  foes."  Congress  at  once  authorized  the  President,  at 
his  discretion,  to  call  out  five  hundred  thousand  volunteers, 
and  gave  him  all  the  powers  necessary  to  carry  on  the  war. 

MILITARY  MOVEMENTS   OF   1861. 

466.  Movements  in  West  Virginia.  —  Early  in  the  summer  of 
1861,  General  George  B.  McClellan  advanced  from  Ohio  into 
western  Virginia,  and  in  less  than  a  month  succeeded  in  driving 
the  Confederates  out  of  that  mountainous  region.  A  little  later, 
General  Robert  E.  Lee,  in  command  of  an  insufficient  Confed 
erate  force,  and  in  an  inclement  season,  attempted  to  recover 
the  ground  lost,  but  he  was  successfully  resisted  by  General 
Kosecrans,  and  the  district  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Union. 


366 


THE  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR. 


[§467 


467.  The  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas.  —  Largely  in  con 
sequence  of  McClellan's  successes  in  West  Virginia,  there  was 
a  great  popular  outcry  in  the  North  for  an  advance.  "  On  to 
Richmond !  "  was  the  watchword  of  many  of  the  influential  news 
papers.  General  Scott  at  length  reluctantly  consented  to  a  for 
ward  movement.  About  thirty-five  miles  south  of  Washington, 

the  railroad  from  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  pass 
ing  through  the  mountains, 
crosses  the  road  which 
runs  from  Richmond  to 
Washington.  The  point, 
therefore,  was  one  of  such 
strategic  importance  that 
it  enabled  the  army  hold 
ing  it  to  move  rapidly  to 
the  East  or  West,  as  well 
as  to  the  North  or  South. 
It  was  here,  at  Manassas 
Junction,  that  the  Confed 
erate  force  was  concen 
trated  under  Gen.  P.  G.  T. 

GENERAL  BEAUREGARD.  Beauregard.1      The   Union 

army,  under  General  Mc 
Dowell,  on  July  21,  crossed  Bull  Run,  a  small  stream  near 
Manassas,  and  advanced  to  an  attack.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  battle,  McDowell  had  some  success ;  but,  in  the  after 
noon,  the  Union  army,  made  up  chiefly  of  raw  recruits,  was 
thrown  into  a  panic,  owing  to  a  reinforcement  of  the  Con- 

1  Born  in  Louisiana,  1818;  died,  1893.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1838; 
United  States  Engineer  till  1861 ;  resigned  and  entered  the  army  of  the  Con 
federate  States ;  opened  fire  on  Ft.  Sumter,  April  12,  1861 ;  was  in  command 
at  Bull  Run,  July  21, 1861 ;  succeeded  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston  at  Shiloh ;  defended 
Charleston  from  September,  1862,  to  April,  1864;  was  transferred  to  Lee  at 
Petersburg,  May,  1864;  tried,  in  September,  1864,  to  arrest  the  march  of  Sher 
man;  surrendered  with  Johnston,  April,  1865;  was  later  connected  with  the 
Louisiana  State  Lottery. 


§469]  MILITARY   MOVEMENTS   OF   1861.  367 

federates,  and  fled  in  great  disorder  towards  Washington. 
About  eighteen  thousand  men'  were  engaged  on  each  side. 
The  Confederates  lost  about  two  thousand,  while  the  loss 
of  the  Unionists  was  nearly  three  thousand.1  Both  armies 
were  temporarily  disorganized  by  the  battle.  On  the  following 
day,  McClellan  was  called  from  West  Virginia  and  put  in  com 
mand  of  all  the  forces  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  In 
November,  General  Scott  was  compelled  by  age  to  give  up  his 
post,  and  McClellan  succeeded  him  as  general  in  chief  of  all 
the  Union  forces.  Neither  army  was  yet  in  condition  to  make 
an  advance. 

468.  Ball's  Bluff.  —  The  Confederates,  however,  strengthened 
their  line  in  the  vicinity  of  Harper's  Ferry,  and  in  October  a 
Union   force   of   about   two   thousand   men  was    defeated   at 
Ball's  Bluff,  and  its  commander,  the  brilliant  Colonel  Baker  of 
Oregon,  was  killed.     Before  the  end  of  the  season  the  Union 
army  was  increased  by  additional  enlistments  to  nearly  two 
hundred  thousand  men,  and  the  autumn  and  winter  months 
were  passed  in  fortifying  the  lines,  drilling  the  recruits,  and 
bringing  together  supplies. 

469.  Lincoln's  Strategic  Plans. —  Lincoln  said  at  the  very 
beginning  of  the  war  that  four  things  were  essential  to  ulti 
mate  success,  and   all  his   plans  were   directed   accordingly. 
First,  the  army  must    defend  Washington,   and,   if   possible, 
press  on  and  take  Richmond.    Second,  the  border  states  must, 
at  all  hazards,  be  prevented  from  seceding.     Third,  the  Missis 
sippi  River  must  be  opened,  in  order  to  give  the  West  com 
munication  with  the  sea  and  to  cut  off  the  Confederates  from 
western  supplies.     And  fourth,  the  blockade  must  be  made  as 
effective  as  possible,  to  prevent  European  supplies  from  reach 
ing  the  South. 

1  The  official  returns  show  that  the  Union  officers  and  men  on  the  field 
numbered  17,676 ;  the  Confederate,  18,053.  The  Union  loss  was  2,896 ;  the  Con 
federate  loss,  1,982.  See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  I.,  pp. 
195-196. 


368 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR. 


[§470 


470.   The  Contest  in  Missouri.  —  In  the  West  special  efforts 
were  made  by  the  Union  forces  to  hold  Missouri.     Sentiment  in 
the  state  was  divided.     General  John  C.  Fremont  (§  417)  was 
early  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Western.  Department. 
He  entered  upon  his  duties  July  25,  with  headquarters  at  St. 
Louis;  but  great  frauds  were  soon  developed  in  his  depart 
ment,  and  he  was  unable  to  furnish  the  necessary  supplies  to 
the  army.     His  department  was  further  discredited  by  an  un 
authorized  order  free 
ing  the  slaves,  which 
President        Lincoln 
promptly     rescinded. 
But    notwithstanding 
the  confusion  at  head 
quarters,  General  Na 
thaniel  Lyon,1  one  of 
the  most  promising  of 
Union    officers,     con 
ducted  affairs  in  the 
field  with  great  energy 
and  skill.    He  pushed 
the  Confederates  out 
of   the   northern  and 
central   parts   of   the 
state ;     but   near   the 
southern     line,    they 
received       reenforce- 
ments  from  Arkansas 
and    Texas,    and    ad 
vanced  under  General  Price.     The  forces  met,  August  10,  at 
Wilson's   Creek,   near    Springfield.       Price   had    10,175   men, 

iBorn  in  Connecticut,  1818;  died,  1861.  Served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  War;  supported  Free  Soil  party  in  Kansas,  1857;  was  placed  in  com 
mand  of  the  United  States  arsenal  at  St.  Louis,  1861;  succeeded  General 
Harney  in  command  of  the  Department;  defeated  Confederates  at  Boons- 
ville  and  at  Dug  Spring;  was  defeated  by  greatly  superior  force  at  Wilson's 
Creek,  and  killed  in  the  battle,  August  10,  1861. 


GENERAL  NATHANIEL  LYON. 


§472]  INTERNATIONAL  DIFFICULTIES.  369 

with  fifteen  guns,  while  Lyon  had  5400,  with  sixteen  guns. 
Lyon's  left  was  commanded  by  General  Franz  Sigel,1  who  passed 
around  the  right  flank  of  the  enemy  and  attacked  in  the 
rear.  Lyon,  at  the  head  of  the  main  army,  led  the  advance 
with  great  gallantry,  swinging  his  hat  as  he  went.  After  being 
twice  wounded,  he  still  pressed  on,  but  soon  fell  from  a  third 
wound,  which  proved  mortal.  Sigel's  force  was  cut  off  and 
routed.  Lyon's  main  army  held  its  ground,  but,  in  the  night, 
the  Union  force  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Springfield.  The 
Unionists  lost  about  twelve  hundred,  the  Confederates  about 
a  thousand.2  A  major  part  of  the  Union  force  now  retreated 
to  Raleigh,  where  they  remained  for  the  winter.  Meanwhile, 
early  in  September,  the  "  Irish  Brigade,"  under  Colonel  J.  A. 
Mulligan,  distinguished  itself  at  Lexington,  with  about  2780 
men,  against  General  Price,  with  a  besieging  army  of  about 
18,000  men  and  sixteen  cannon.  Though  Mulligan  and  his 
followers  were  obliged  finally  to  surrender,  it  was  not  till 
after  three  days  of  most  desperate  fighting. 

471.  Halleck  succeeds  Fremont.  —  In  October,  Missouri  was 
visited  by  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Adjutant  General,  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  the  condition  of  affairs,  of  which 
many  complaints  had  reached  Washington.  Everything  was 
found  to  be  in  dire  confusion,  owing  to  the  inability  of  Fre 
mont  to  administer  successfully  so  large  a  field.  General 
Fremont  was  consequently  superseded  by  General  Henry  W. 
Halleck,  who,  before  the  end  of  the  year,  without  fighting  a 
battle,  gained  possession  of  the  entire  state. 

INTERNATIONAL  DIFFICULTIES. 

472.  The  Trent  Affair.  —  Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1861, 
an  event  occurred  which  nearly  involved  the  Union  in  a  war 
with  Great  Britain.  In  November,  Captain  Wilkes,  a  United 

1  Born  in  Baden,  1824.     General  Sigel  died  in  New  York  in  1902,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  his  services  for  the  Union  were  highly  eulogized. 

2  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  I.,  p.  306. 


370  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   CIVIL   WAR.  [§  473 

States  officer,  in  command  of  the  San  Jacinto,  boarded  a  British 
mail  steamer,  The  Trent,  and  took  from  her  James  M.  Mason 
of  Virginia  and  John  Slidell  of  Louisiana,  who  were  bound  for 
Europe  as  Confederate  commissioners.  The  right  to  stop  and 
search  the  vessels  of  neutrals  in  time  of  war  had  long  been 
maintained  by  Great  Britain.  The  "  Eight  of  Search,"  as  we 
have  seen,  had  been  one  of  the  causes  of  the  War  of  1812. 
Though  often  protested  against,  it  had  been  generally  main 
tained,  but  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War  the  Great  Powers 
of  Europe  agreed,  at  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  1856,  to  abandon  it. 
To  this  agreement  the  United  States,  not  being  a  member  of 
the  Congress,  had  not  been  a  party,  and  was,  therefore,  not 
bound  by  it.  The  British  government,  however,  insisted 
that  the  European  agreement  should  be  binding  upon  the 
United  States,  and  immediately  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Mason  and  Slidell.  Troops  and  vessels  of  war  were  at  once 
sent  over  to  Canada,  and  great  excitement  was  the  result. 
The  officials  of  the  United  States  replied  that,  although  not  a 
party  to  the  agreement  of  1856,  their  government  had  always 
been  opposed  to  the  "  Eight  of  .Search,"  and  in  accordance 
with  its  own  principles  would  give  up  the  prisoners. 

473.  Feeling  engendered  by  the  Trent  Affair.  —  The  incident 
left  an  angry  feeling  in  the  North  toward  Great  Britain,  for  it 
was  universally  felt  that  the  British  government  had  shown 
an  unmistakable  partiality  for  the  South.     This  feeling  was 
further  aggravated  by  the  habitual  attitude  of  that  important 
newspaper,  the  London   Times.     Its  offensive  editorial  utter 
ances,  which  were  generally  thought  to  be  inspired  by  Lord 
Palmerston,  the  Prime  Minister,  were  the  source  of  a  vast 
amount  of  ill  feeling  for  more  than  a  generation. 

474.  Results  of  the  First  Year.  —  The  outcome  of  the  first 
year  in   the   field   was  favorable  to  the  Confederates.     The 
Union   side   had   lost   Fort   Sumter,  Big   Bethel,   Bull   Eun, 
Ball's  Bluff,  Carthage,  Wilson's  Creek,  and  Belmont.     With 
the  exception  of  some  small  successes  in  West  Virginia,  there 


§474]  INTERNATIONAL  DIFFICULTIES.  371 

had  been  disasters  in  every  quarter.  To  a  superficial  observer, 
therefore,  success  seemed  to  favor  the  South,  and  the  attitude 
of  England  was  easily  accounted  for.  But  there  were  other 
considerations  to  be  taken  into  account.  The  tactful  diplo 
macy  of  Lincoln  and  the  irresistible  energy  of  the  Union 
sentiment  had  saved  the  states  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  Ken 
tucky,  Missouri,  and  a  part  of  Virginia  from  secession,  and 
these  results  ought,  perhaps,  to  be  regarded  as  more  than 
equivalent  to  the  Confederate  successes  in  the  field.  Not  less 
important  were  the  Union  successes  in  closing  the  Confederate 
ports.  The  blockade  was  growing  to  be  so  complete  as  to  pre 
vent  the  exportation  of  cotton  and  tobacco,  and  thus  to  cut  off 
the  most  important  source  of  Confederate  income.  Meanwhile, 
there  was  great  commercial  activity  between  the  Union  states 
and  Europe,  and  the  government  was  easily  and  amply  sup 
plied  with  men  and  money. 


For  References,  see  end  of  Chapter  XXV. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 
THE    WAR   IN  THE   WEST. 

475.  Secretary  Edwin  M.  Stanton.  —  The  first  very  important 
event  of  the  year  1862  was  the  substitution  of  Edwin  M. 
Stanton 1  for  Simon  Cameron,  as  Secretary  of  War,  January  13. 
Cameron,  who  had  been  a  candidate  for  the  Presidential  nom 
ination,  had  been  taken  into  the  Cabinet  under  the  policy 
already  referred  to  (§  451),  but  the  duties  soon  proved  too 
severe  for  his  energy  and  his  years.  He  was  appointed  Min 
ister  to  Russia ;  and  the  vacant  position  was  given  to  Stanton, 
who,  as  a  War  Democrat,  had  shown  his  ability  and  his  spirit  as 
Attorney-General  in  Buchanan's  reorganized  Cabinet.  Stanton 
at  once  put  new  life  into  the  War  Department.  He  was,  at 
times,  exceedingly  disagreeable  in  his  methods,  but  he  was  the 
terror  of  evil  doers ;  and  to  the  end  of  the  war  his  marvelous 
energy  and  remarkable  administrative  ability  made  themselves 
felt  in  every  branch  of  the  service.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  has 
been  any  greater  Minister  of  War  in  modern  times. 

476.  Military  Organization  in  the  West. — Activities  in  the  field 
began  with  very  vigorous  movements  in  the  West.  The  Con 
federates,  under  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  (§  478),  had 
established  a  strong  line  in  southern  Kentucky,  extending  from 

1  Born  in  Ohio,  1814;  died,  18G9.  Built  up  an  important  business  as  a  law 
yer  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  before  the  war;  became  Attorney-General  in 
Buchanan's  Cabinet  in  1860;  succeeded  Cameron  in  Lincoln's  Cabinet,  1862; 
ruled  his  Department  with  great  vigor;  had  noteworthy  controversies  with 
McClellan  and  Sherman;  strenuously  opposed  Johnson's  reconstruction  policy; 
was  nominated  by  Grant  for  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  but  died  before 
taking  his  seat. 

372 


476] 


THE   WAR  IN  THE   WEST. 


373 


Columbus   to   Mill    Spring.     They   had    also    constructed,   as 
already  described  (§  461),  two  strong  forts  in  Tennessee,  just 
south  of  the  Kentucky 
line, — Port  Henry  on 
the    Tennessee    River, 
and  Fort  Donelson  on 
the  Cumberland.     The 
organization      of     the 
Northern  army  in  the 
West      introduced      a 
change   in   the    spring 
of  1862.     The  Depart 
ment    of    the    Missis 
sippi,   which   included 
Missouri,       Arkansas, 
and  so  much  of  Ken 
tucky  as  was  west  of 
the  Cumberland  River, 
under   Major    General 
H.  W.  Halleck,  and  the 
Department      of      the 
Ohio,   which    included 
the  eastern  parts  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  under  Major  Gen 
eral  Don  Carlos  Buell,  were  consolidated  on  the  llth  of  March, 
1862,  into  one  department,  and  placed  under  Halleck,  who  thus 
received  command  of  all  the  forces  throughout  the  West,  con 
sisting  of  somewhat  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  men. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,1  who  began  his  distinguished  career  in  this 


EDWIN  M.  STANTON. 


1  Born  in  Ohio,  1822 ;  died,  1885.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1843 ;  fought 
gallantly  in  the  Mexican  War;  resigned  in  1854,  and  engaged  in  business 
with  indifferent  success  till  1861 ;  was  appointed  colonel,  and  given  command 
at  Cairo  in  1861;  took  Fort  Donelson,  thus  gaining  the  first  brilliant  victory 
for  the  Union  arms,  February,  1862;  'defeated  Confederates  at  Pittsburg 
Landing,  April,  1862 ;  took  Corinth  and  surrounding  region  in  the  summer  of 
1862;  opened  the  Mississippi  River  by  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July  4,  1863; 
was  placed  in  command  of  Western  armies,  September,  1863;  took  Chatta 
nooga  in  November,  1863 ;  succeeded  Halleck  in  command  of  all  the  armies  in 


374  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1802  [§  47? 

war  as  colonel,  had  been  advanced  to  brigadier  general  in  con 
sequence  of  a  prompt  and  successful  seizure  of  Cairo,  and 
was  now,  though  under  the  direction  of  Halleck,  in  command 
of  the  middle  branch  of  the  army,  while  Buell  commanded  the 
eastern  section. 

477.  First  Advances.  —  The  first  advance  in  Kentucky  was 
made  by  one  of  Buell's  divisions  under  General  George  H. 
Thomas,  who,  on  the  19th  of  January,  defeated  a  force  of 
about  equal  numbers  under  General  Zollicoft'er  at  Mill  Spring 
and  drove  it  back  into  Tennessee.  Rear  Admiral  A.  H.  Foote, 
with  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  in  February  advanced  up  the  Tennessee 
River,  and,  after  a  severe  engagement,  took  Fort  Henry,  with  the 
commanding  general  and  a  part  of  the  garrison  as  prisoners. 
Grant,  who  arrived  with  his  army  at  about  the  same  time, 
marched  rapidly  across  the  country  and  surrounded  Fort  Don- 
elson,  on  the  Cumberland.  After  making  rapid  preparations 
for  a  siege,  he  carried  the  outer  works  of  the  fort  by  storm,  and 
then  refused  to  accept  any  terms  but  "unconditional  surrender." 
He  took  some  fifteen  thousand  prisoners  (February  16),  includ 
ing  two  generals,  and  about  twenty  thousand  stand  of  arms. 
This  was  the  first  great  victory  for  the  North,  and  the  skill 
and  vigor  shown  attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  country. 
The  Confederate  line  was  in  consequence  so  broken  that  the 
troops  of  the  Confederacy  were  obliged  to  draw  back  into 
southern  Tennessee.  The  Union  forces  soon  occupied  Nash 
ville,  and  President  Lincoln  appointed  Andrew  Johnson,  a 
prominent  Tennessee  Unionist,  as  military  governor.  Grant 
advanced  to  Nashville  without  waiting  for  orders,  or  even 
reporting  the  nature  of  his  movement  to  Halleck.  The  conse 
quence  was  a  formal  complaint  of  Halleck  to  McClellan,  who 

the  spring  of  1864 ;  fought  a  series  of  great  battles  against  Lee,  in  Virginia ; 
took  Petersburg  arid  Richmond  and  compelled  surrender  of  Lee's  army,  April 
9,  1865;  was  unanimously  nominated  for  President  in  1868;  served  two  terms; 
traveled  around  the  world  and  was  everywhere  received  with  the  greatest 
honor;  wrote  his  Personal  Memoirs  with  remarkable  skill  when  suffering 
intensely  from  the  disease  which  caused  his  death. 


GENERAL  ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


376 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1802. 


[§477 


had  now  taken  the  place  of  Scott  as  commanding  general  of 
all  the  armies  of  the  United  States.  McClellan,  in  reply, 
authorized  Halleck  to  "  arrest  Grant  and  put  C.  F.  Smith  in 
command."  Halleck,  however,  realizing  the  immense  popu 
larity  which  the  "  unconditional  surrender  "  order  and  the  suc 
cess  of  Grant  had  given  the  latter  in  the  North,  decided  not 
to  exercise  this  authority,  but  ordered  Grant  back  to  Fort 


OPERATIONS  IN  THE  WEST,  1862. 

Henry,  and  placed  C.  F.  Smith  in  charge  of  the  expedition 
up  the  Tennessee.  Grant  was  offended,  and  twice  asked  to 
be  relieved  of  further  duty  in  that  department.  But  when 
at  length  Grant's  reports  were  received,  they  were  so  com 
pletely  satisfactory  that  Halleck  telegraphed,  expressing  his 
confidence,  and  Grant  was  satisfied.  Grant's  aversion  to  send 
ing  detailed  reports  of  all  his  movements  was  such  that  the 
Department  at  Washington  sent  to  his  headquarters  a  special 
agent,  Charles  A.  Dana,  assistant  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune  (afterward  editor  of  the  Sun),  whose  duty  it  was  to 


478] 


THE    WAR   IN   THE    WEST. 


377 


send  a  daily  telegraphic  report.  Thereafter  the  government 
was  kept  fully  informed  of  Grant's  movements. 

478.  Shiloh,  or  Pittsburg  Landing.  —  Grant's  army,  now 
reenforced  to  about  forty  thousand  men,  crossed  back  to  the 
Tennessee  River,  and  ad 
vanced  southward  as  far  as 
Pittsburg  Landing,  near  the 
border  of  Mississippi.  This 
point  and  Corinth,  not  far 
below  it,  were  of  great 
strategic  importance,  be 
cause  of  the  facility  with 
which  troops  and  freight 
could  here  be  exchanged 
between  the  Mississippi 
and  Tennessee  rivers,  and 
because  they  commanded 
the  Memphis  and  Charles 
ton  Railroad,  which  was  one 
of  the  Confederacy's  chief  c>  ^ 

means     of     transportation    i ,* 
from  the  Mississippi  River       GENERAL  ALBERT  SIDNEY  JOHNSTON. 

to  the  Atlantic.     To  seize 

and  hold  these  points  was  to  prevent  the  transfer  of  troops  and 
supplies.  Buell's  army  was  h\irried  forward  to  join  Grant,  but 
the  general  in  command  of  the  Confederate  force,  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston,1  hastened  to  strike  the  army  of  Grant  before  Buell 
could  arrive.  Grant's  advance  extended  a  little  west  of  Pitts- 

i  Born  in  Kentucky,  1803 ;  died,  1862.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1826 ;  served 
in  Black  Hawk  War,  in  Texas  before  annexation,  and  in  the  Mexican  War ; 
was  paymaster  and  colonel  in  the  United  States  army;  in  charge  of  the 
Department  of  the  Pacific  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out ;  resigned,  and  was 
appointed  general  in  the  Confederate  service  and  intrusted  with  the  command 
in  the  West ;  concentrated  his  forces  at  Corinth,  and  planned  a  surprise  for 
Grant  at  Shiloh ;  fought  a  desperate  battle,  but  lost  his  life  near  the  close  of 
the  first  day's  conflict,  while  leading  a  charge. 


378  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF    1862.  [§  479 

burg  Landing,  where  the  attack  was  first  made.  Early  on 
the  morning  of  April  6,  the  Confederates,  led  by  Johnston  in 
person,  attacked  with  great  vigor  and  drove  the  Union  force 
back  upon  the  river.  Sherman,  who  commanded  this  part  of 
the  army,  still  held  to  the  old  notion  that  intrenchment  in  the 
field  made  men  cowardly,  and,  consequently,  his  force  came 
near  being  utterly  routed.  The  progress  of  the  Confederates, 
however,  was  stubbornly  resisted,  not  only  by  the  troops,  but 
by  the  gunboats,  which  threw  shells  over  the  Union  army  into 
the  Confederate  ranks.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  first  day  the 
Confederates  met  with  an  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of 
their  very  able  leader,  Johnston,  who  was  killed  on  the  field. 
General  Beauregard  succeeded  to  the  command.  In  the  even 
ing  Buell  arrived  with  strong  reinforcements,  and  at  the  dawn 
of  day  on  the  7th,  Grant  advanced  to  the  attack.  The  Con 
federates  made  a  stout  resistance,  but  were  finally  driven  back 
and  forced  to  retreat  to  Corinth.  The  Unionists  lost  between 
thirteen  and  fourteen  thousand,  and  the  Confederates  between 
ten  and  eleven  thousand.1  The  general  notion  prevailed  in  the 
North  that  this  greatest  battle  that  had  as  yet  been  fought  in 
America,  was  saved  only  by  the  arrival  of  Buell.  Grant's  confi 
dence  in  the  outcome,  even  after  the  first  day's  repulse,  amounted 
to  a  calmness  that  was  interpreted  by  many  as  stolid  indifference.2 

479.  Capture  of  Corinth  and  Memphis.  —  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  or,  as  it  is  more  fre 
quently  called  in  the  South,  at  Shiloh,  the  Union  force  pressed 

1  The  Union  army  present  for  duty,  according  to  the  official  records,  num 
bered  44,805;  the  Confederate  army,  40,335.    The  Union  loss  was  13,647;  the 
Confederate,  10,609,    See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  538- 
539. 

2  The  impression  made  by  newspaper  correspondents  on  the  country  was 
very  unfavorable,  and  there  was  a  loud  and  general  demand  for  the  removal 
of  Grant.    The  feeling  took  possession  of  a  large  majority  of  Congress  and  of 
the  President's  most  ardent  supporters.     Delegates  waited  on  Lincoln  and 
urged  a  change  of  commanders.     Finally,  A.  K.  McClure,  a  prominent  editor 
of  Philadelphia,  called  on  the  President  at  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  and  for  two 
hours  urged  Grant's  removal.      After  a  long  silence,  Lincoln  drew  himself 
up  in  his  chair,  and  simply  said,  "  I  can't  spare  this  man,  he  fights." 


§481] 


THE   WAR  IN  THE   WEST. 


379 


on  and  took  possession  of  Corinth.  In  March,  a  fleet  of  gun 
boats,  supported  by  an  army  under  Major  General  John  Pope, 
after  surmounting  many  and  great  difficulties,  succeeded  in 
opening  the  Mississippi  River  from  Cairo  to  Memphis.  In  June, 
Memphis  was  taken,  after  one  of  the  most  remarkable  naval 
engagements  of  the  war.  The  river  was  soon  afterward  opened 
as  far  south  as  Vicksburg.  The  lower  Mississippi  had  been 
opened  by  the  taking  of  New  Orleans  in  April  (§  488). 

480.  The  Battle  of  Pea  Ridge.  —  While  Grant  had  been  push 
ing  south  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  General  S.  E.  Curtis  had 
also  been  successful  in  the  farther  West.     The  Confederates, 
under  General  Van  Dorn,  organized  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  a  force  of  about  sixteen  thousand,  including  thirty -five 
hundred   Indians,   for   the   purpose   of  recovering    Missouri. 
General  Curtis,  supported  by    ,  ,r 

General  Sigel,  advanced  across 
the  Arkansas  line  with  ten 
thousand  five  hundred  Union 
troops.  The  forces  met  at  Pea 
Kidge  (March  6).  The  Con 
federates  were  defeated ;  and 
after  that  time  no  very  impor 
tant  battle  occurred  west  of  the 
Mississippi  Eiver. 

481.  Bragg's  Raid  into  Ken 
tucky. —  After    the    losses    of 
Shiloh   and   Corinth,    General 
Beauregard's  impaired   health 
caused  him  to  be  superseded  by 
General  Braxton  Bragg,1  a  ca 
pable  commander,  who  now  determined  to  break  through  the 
Union  lines,  and,  if  possible,  recover  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  for 
the  Confederacy.     Advancing  to  the  eastern  part  of  Tennessee, 


GENERAL  BRAXTON  BRAGG. 


1  Born  in  North  Carolina,  1817 ;  died,  1876.    Graduated  at  West  Point,  1837 ; 
distinguished  himself  in  Mexican  War;  resigned  at  close  of  the  war;  offered  his 


380 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF  1862. 


[§482 


early  in  September,  he  turned  suddenly  north  in  the  hope  of 
marching  across  Kentucky  and  taking  Louisville ;  but  Buell 
advanced  along  a  shorter  line  and  reached  Louisville  before  the 
Confederates,  thus  saving  the  principal  city  of  the  state.  After 
much  maneuvering,  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Perry- 
ville,  October  8 ;  but  the  Confederates  were  checked.  They 
were  obliged  to  abandon  their  attempt  to  secure  a  permanent 

foothold  and  had  to 
content  themselves 
with  carrying  south 
long  trains  of  sup 
plies.  Though  Buell's 
pursuit  was  not  vigor 
ous,  he  drove  Bragg 
out  of  Kentucky.  At 
the  end  of  the  raid, 
the  Confederates  set 
up  defenses  at  Chat 
tanooga,  while  the 
headquarters  of  the 
Union  army  were  at 
Nashville. 

482.  Battle  of  Mur- 
freesborough,  or  Stone 
River.  —  After  secur 
ing  his  stores  at  Chat 
tanooga,  Bragg  moved 

northwestward  and  erected  strong  works  at  Murf reesborough . 

Major  General  William  S.  Rosecrans,1  who  had  now  superseded 

services  to  the  Confederate  cause  in  1861 ;  succeeded  Beauregard  in  the  West ; 
invaded  Kentucky  in  1862,  hut  was  driven  out  by  Buell ;  was  repulsed  by 
Rosecrans  at  Stone  River,  but  won  the  great  battle  at  Chickamauga ;  was 
defeated  by  Grant  at  Chattanooga  irf  1863,  and  superseded  in  his  command 
by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston. 

1  Born  in  Ohio,  1819;  died,  1898.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1842;  colonel  of 
Ohio  Volunteers  in  1861 ;  served  successfully  in  West  Virginia  in  1861 ;  succeeded 
McClellan  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Ohio;  succeeded  Buell  in 


GENERAL  W.  S.  ROSECRANS. 


§484]  THE   WORK   OF  THE   NAVY.  381 

Buell,  advanced  from  Nashville  with  the  purpose  of  dislodging 
his  opponent.  The  armies  met  in  a  great  battle  on  Stone  River, 
a  shallow  stream  which  flowed  between  the  armies,  near  Mur- 
freesborough.  During  the  first  day,  December  31,  the  Union 
ists  were  driven  back,  but  during  the  second  and  third  days, 
they  recovered  their  ground.  On  the  night  of  January  2, 
1863,  the  Confederates  were  obliged  to  withdraw  from  the 
field,  but  the  Unionists  were  too  much  crippled  to  follow. 
The  battle  was  a  costly  one  to  both  sides,  the  Union  loss 
having  been  about  thirteen  thousand,  and  the  Confederate 
about  ten  thousand.  Both  armies  soon  went  into  winter 
quarters.  The  battle  left  the  control  of  central  Tennessee 
in  the  hands  of  the  Unionists. 

483.  Results  in  the  West.  —  The  results  of  the  campaigns  in 
the  West  were  highly  encouraging  to  the  North.      The  Union 
forces  had  kept  possession  of  Missouri  and  had  got  control  of 
the  larger  part  of  Tennessee  and  of  the  Mississippi  River  a.s  far 
south  as  Vicksburg.     The  Confederates  still  had  the  advantage 
of  being  strongly  intrenched  at  Chattanooga,  the  point  in  east 
ern  Tennessee  through  which  the  railroads  pass  from  Virginia 
to  the  Southwestern  states.     The  armies  had  fought  with  equal 
bravery,  but  the  balance  of  success  was  on  the  side  of  the 
North. 

THE   WORK   OF   THE    NAVY. 

484.  Ironclads.  — -  In  the  East,  the  war  was  prosecuted,  dur 
ing  1862,  partly  by  the  navy  and  partly  by  the  army.      Before 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  ironclad  vessels  had  played  prac 
tically   no  part    in  naval   warfare   anywhere    in  the   world. 
Experiments  in  protecting  vessels  with  iron  had,  indeed,  been 
made  by  the  British  and  the  French,  but  without  much  success. 

command  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  ;  fought  successfully  the  great  bat 
tle  of  Stone  River ;  was  defeated  by  Bragg  at  Chickamauga ;  was  superseded 
and  put  on  waiting  orders  in  the  West;  resigned  in  1867;  Minister  to  Mexico, 
1868-1869 ;  congressman  from  California,  1881-1885 ;  Register  of  United  States 
Treasury,  1885-1893. 


382  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§  485 

In  the  latter  part  of  1861,  however,  an  event  occurred  which 
effected  a  complete  revolution  in  the  construction  of  war  ships- 
The  Confederates  had  secured  at  Norfolk  the  abandoned  and 
partly  destroyed  frigate  Merrimac.  They  decided  to  cut  off 
the  top  of  the  vessel  and  build  upon  it  a  sort  of  Mansard 
roof  so  heavily  plated  with  iron  and  so  sloping  that  it  could 
throw  off  the  heaviest  cannon  shot.  They  also  fitted  up  the 
ship  with  an  iron  prow,  or  beak,  put  in  powerful  engines, 
and  filled  the  space  within  the  roof  with  heavy  guns.  At 


CONFEDERATE  RAM. 

about  the  same  time,  Brigadier  General  A.  W.  Ellet,  an  engi 
neer  in  the  Union  army,  devised  and  built  in  the  West  a  fleet 
of  steam  rams  of  similar  construction,  which  did  great  execu 
tion  at  the  battle  of  Memphis. 

485.  First  Success  of  the  Merrimac.  —  On  the  8th  of  March, 
1862,  the  Merrimac  sailed  out  from  Norfolk  into  Hampton 
Eoads.  She  there  met  a  Union  fleet,  consisting  of  five  of  the 
largest  ships  and  a  number  of  smaller  vessels.  The  battle  was 
one-sided,  and  was  soon  over.  The  Merrimac  with  its  prow  sank 
the  Cumberland  and  then  drove  the  other  vessels  ashore  and 
set  several  of  them  on  fire.  The  whole  fleet  would  have  been 
destroyed  had  not  darkness  come  on.  The  guns  of  the  wooden 
ships  made  no  impression  whatever  on  the  Merrimac.  At 
night  this  destructive  Confederate  boat  withdrew  to  Norfolk, 
intending  to  finish  its  work  the  next  morning. 


486] 


THE   WORK  OF   THE   NAVY. 


383 


486.  The  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor.  —  Fortunately  for  the 
North,  when  the  Merrimac  came  out  on  the  second  day,  she  was 
confronted  by  a  craft  still  stranger  in  appearance  than  her- 


NORFOLK,  HAMPTON  ROADS, 

AND  VICINITY 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


self.  In  the  course  of  the  winter,  John  Ericsson,1  a  great 
Swedish  engineer,  then  in  New  York,  had  constructed  a  gun 
boat  which  he  called  the  Monitor.  It  consisted  of  the  hull  of 

1  Born  in  Sweden,  1803;  died,  1889.  Became  a  mechanical  engineer;  came 
to  America  in  1839;  invented  the  screw  propeller,  and  in  1843  applied  his 
self-acting  gun-lock  to  a  gun  on  the  Princeton ;  invented  the  turreted  ship, 
the  Monitor,  the  principle  of  which  soon  displaced  wooden  ships  from  all 
the  navies  in  existence;  made  a  large  number  of  other  important  inven 
tions.- 


384 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 


[§487 


a  vessel  with  a  top  as  low  and  flat  as  a  raft.  Rising  only  a  few 
inches  above  the  water,  it  was  made  enormously  strong,  in  or 
der  that  it  might  carry  very  powerful  engines,  as  well  as  its 
very  heavy  armor  of  iron.  On  its  deck  was  a  low,  broad  iron 
tower,  thick  enough  to  resist  the  heaviest  shot,  and  large 

enough  to  hold  two  of  the 
most  powerful  guns.  This 
tower,  which  was  said  to  re 
semble  a  cheese  box  on  a  raft, 
was  revolved  by  machinery 
within  the  hull  of  the  vessel. 
Though  the  tonnage  of  the 
Monitor  was  only  nine  hun 
dred,  while  that  of  the  Merri- 
mac,  owing  to  her  heavy  guns, 
was  thirty-five  hundred,  the 
advantage  was  decidedly 
with  the  Monitor.  When 
the  two  vessels  came  to 
gether,  they  fought  for  four 
hours  with  the  utmost  des 
peration.  Then  the  Merri- 
mac  withdrew  to  Norfolk 
and  soon  after  was  destroyed 

by  the  Confederates  themselves.  The  terror  that  had  been  felt 
in  all  the  seaboard  cities  at  the  end  of  the  first  day's  victories 
of  .the  Merrimac  was  thus  relieved,  and  a  new  era  in  naval 
construction  began.1 

487.  Capture  of  Confederate  Ports.  —  Elsewhere  on  the  coast, 
several  important  events  took  place.  Commodore  Goldsborough 
and  Major  General  A.  E.  Burn  side  captured  Roanoke  Island  in 
February,  and,  a  little  later,  Fort  Pulaski  on  the  Savannah 
River.  Several  places  in  Florida  also  fell  into  Union  hands. 

1  In  twenty  years  there  was  hardly  a  wooden  ship  of  war  afloat.  The 
Monitor,  however,  did  not  prove  to  be  a  good  sea-going  vessel,  and  sank  in 
December,  1862. 


JOHN  ERICSSON. 


488] 


THE    WORK   OF   THE   NAVY. 


385 


By  these  captures,  the  blockade  was  made  much  easier  and 
more  effective. 

488.  Capture  of  New  Orleans.  —  The  great  event  in  the 
extreme  South  was 
the  capture  of  New 
Orleans.  This  city 
was  of  much  im 
portance  to  the  Con 
federacy,  for  it  not 
only  controlled  the 
mouth  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  River,  but 
also  protected  the 
passage  from  Texas 
to  the  Eastern 
states.  A  naval  ex 
pedition  designed 
to  attempt  the  cap 
ture  of  the  place 
was  fitted  out  un 
der  Commodore  D. 
G.  Farragut,1  with 
auxiliary  military 
forces  under  Ma 
jor  General  B.  F. 
Butler.  The  ex 
pedition  set  out  ADMIRAL  D.  G.  FARRAGUT. 
from  Hampton  Roads  in  February.  The  troops,  some  fifteen 
thousand  in  number,  landed  at  Ship  Island,  and  remained 

1  Born  in  Tennessee,  1801 ;  died,  1870.  Entered  the  United  States  navy  at 
a  very  early  age ;  was  in  the  War  of  1812  ;  had  little  opportunity  to  dis 
play  his  ability  till  the  Civil  War,  when  he  adhered  to  the  Union,  and  was  at 
once  assigned  an  important  command ;  established  his  permanent  fame  by  the 
passage  of  the  forts  and  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  April  24,  1862 ;  added  to 
his  distinction  by  the  great  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  August  5,  1864  ;  was  ap 
pointed  vice-admiral  in  1864,  and  admiral  in  1866,  both  of  which  offices  were 
created  for  him  by  Congress. 


386  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§  489 

there  until  the  fleet  opened  the  river.  The  city  was  pro 
tected  by  Port  Jackson  and  Fort  St.  Philip,  with  very 
heavy  guns,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river.  From  one  side  to 
the  other,  six  massive  chains  were  stretched ;  and  connected 
with  these  was  a  huge  raft  of  logs,  extending  from  shore  to 
shore  and  completely  closing  the  passage.  Above  the  raft 
was  a  fleet  of  thirteen  Confederate  gunboats  and  an  ironclad 
floating  battery.  There  were  also  several  fire  rafts,  designed 
to  burn  the  Union  ships  in  case  they  forced  a  passage.  Farra- 
gut  bombarded  the  forts  for  a  week  without  much  effect,  and 
then  determined  to  force  his  way  through  the  obstructions. 
One  dark  night  several  of  the  gunboats  ran  up  to  the  raft 
and  succeeded  in  cutting  the  chains  so  as  to  open  a  passage. 
A  very  desperate  combat  ensued.  Farragut  pushed  forward 
with  fourteen  vessels,  protected  with  chains  and  sand  bags 
against  the  enemy's  fire.  The  movement  of  the  ships  was 
made  plain  by  bonfires  lighted  along  the  shore.  The  cannon 
ading  from  the  works  and  the  opposing  ships  was  terrific ;  but 
the  Confederate  fleet  was  finally  destroyed  and  Farragut  found 
himself  above  the  forts.  The  city  was  now  at  his  mercy,  and 
it  surrendered  on  April  25. 

489.  General  Butler  in  New  Orleans.  —  General  Benjamin  F. 
Butler  took  command  of  New  Orleans  as  military  governor,  and 
Farragut's  fleet  passed  on  and  soon  opened  the  river  to  the 
vicinity  of  Vicksburg.  The  war  governor  with  great  difficulty 
wrought  order  out  of  chaos  by  a  policy  that  was  much  criti 
cised  for  its  severity.  One  of  the  citizens  defiantly  pulled 
down  the  American  flag,  whereupon  the  general,  after  the 
offender  had  been  duly  convicted  of  the  act,  ordered  him  to  be 
hanged.  In  other  ways,  he  made  it  evident  that  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  was  not  to  be  trifled  with ;  but  some  of 
his  orders  naturally  gave  much  offense  to  the  people  of  the 
South.  His  services  to  the  city  from  the  point  of  view  of 
sanitation  are,  however,  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been 
very  noteworthy. 


490] 


THE   WAR  IN   THE   EAST. 


387 


THE    WAR    IN   THE   EAST. 

*, 

490.    McClellan  and  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  —  In  the  East, 
the  campaigns  of  1862  were  far  less  successful  for  the  Union 
than  were  those  in  the  West.     McClellan/  whose  successes  in 
West      Virginia      had 
brought    him    rapidly 
forward,         succeeded 
Scott,     in     November, 
1861,    as     general     in 
chief  of  all  the  armies. 
While,  during  the  win 
ter,  he  was  successfully 
organizing    the    forces 
of  the  East,  his  direc 
tion    of    the    Western 
armies   was   confusing 
and  unsatisfactory.  For 
this    reason,   and    also 
because  of  his  attitude 
toward   the  President, 
which    seemed    to    be 
characterized  by  insub- 
ordination,   his    authority   was   limited    to   the   Army  of   the 
Potomac.     The   number   of   parallel   rivers  and  the  swampy 
nature    of   much    of    the    ground    between    Washington    and 
Richmond     as    already    described    (§    460),    gave    excellent 

1  Born  in  Philadelphia,  1826  ;  died,  1885.  Graduated  at  West  Point  at  the 
head  of  his  class,  1846  ;  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  sent  to  Europe 
as  expert  to  study  military  methods;  published  Armies  of  Europe;  was 
appointed  major  general  and  commanded  successfully  in  West  Virginia; 
appointed  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  1861  ;  succeeded  Scott 
as  commanding  general,  hut  March  11,  1862,  was  again  limited  in  command 
to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  ;  rendered  invaluable  service  in  organizing  and 
drilling  the  army,  but  excess  of  caution  subjected  him  to  severe  criticism; 
commanded  in  the  Antietam  campaign  ;  was  placed  on  waiting  orders,  Novem 
ber  7,  1862;  resigned,  1864;  was  Democratic  candidate  for  President  in  1864; 
was  governor  of  New  Jersey,  1878-1881. 


GENERAL  GEORGE  B' 


388  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§  491 

opportunities  for  defensive  warfare,  but  made  an  offensive 
campaign,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Richmond,  exceedingly 
difficult.  The  Federal  government  was  in  favor  of  a  direct 
advance,  such  as  was  afterwards  made  by  Grant  j  but  McClel- 
lan  strongly  recommended  a  transfer  of  his  army  to  the  Penin 
sula  between  the  York  and  the  James  rivers,  and  an  advance 
upon  Richmond  from  the  southeast.  Lincoln  very  reluctantly 
yielded  to  this  plan,  which  had  the  disadvantage  of  separating 
McClellan  from  the  forces  that  were  to  protect  Washington. 

491.  Unfortunate  Division  of  Forces.  —  Unfortunately,  also, 
this  arrangement  resulted  in  the  Union's  having  in  the  field 
in   the   East   four   separate   armies,  under   independent  com 
manders  :  that  under  McClellan  in  the  Peninsula ;  that  under 
McDowell  for  the  immediate  protection  of  Washington ;  that 
under  Banks  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  to  prevent  the  Confed 
erates  from  crossing  the  Potomac ;  and  that  under  Fremont  in 
the  passes  leading  to  West  Virginia.     By  reason  of   the  ease 
with  which  the  Confederates  could  move  on  interior  lines  from 
one  point  to  another,  it  was  possible  to  strike  either  of  the 
Union  armies  with  a  large  Confederate  force  before  a  Federal 
combination  could  be  formed.    Hence,  though  the  Confederates 
were  really  much  inferior  in  numbers,  they  were  generally  able, 
in  the  battles  that  ensued,  to  attack  with  a  superior  force.    The 
Confederates  had  the  further  advantage  of  being  in  their  own 
country,  where  every  movement  of   the  Federals  was  easily 
ascertained.     In  the  early  spring,  the  Union  force  numbered 
about    two   hundred    thousand,  while   the   Confederates   had 
scarcely  one  hundred  thousand ;  but  the  latter,  by  the  con 
scription  act  of  April  15,  increased  their  forces  considerably. 

492.  McClelland  Peninsula  Campaign.  —  McClellan,  with  an 
army  one  hundred  thousand  strong,  reached  the  lower  Penin 
sula,  between  the  York  and  the  James,  early  in  March.     Here 
he  found  himself  confronted  by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston1 

i  Born  in  Virginia,  1807 ;  died,  1891.    Graduated  at  West  Point,  1829 ;  distin 
guished  himself  in  Indian   wars  and  in  War  with  Mexico ;  appointed  Con- 


492] 


THE   WAR  IN  THE   EAST. 


389 


at  Yorktown,  and  later  at  Williamsburg.  Johnston's  force  was 
less  than  a  third  of  McClellan's,  yet  McClellan  decided  not  to 
attack,  but  to  employ  an  engineer's  slow  methods  of  siege.  If 
a  resolute  attack  had  been  made,  Johnston  would  probably 
have  been  defeated,  and 
McClellan  would  have  been 
free  to  advance  up  the  James. 
Johnston  watched  his  adver 
sary  closely,  well  knowing 
that  when  McClellan's  siege 
works  were  ready  they  could 
not  be  resisted.  Meanwhile 
the  Confederate  force  was 
constantly  increasing,  and 
a  precious  month  was  gained 
for  drilling  their  new  re 
cruits.  On  May  3,  three  days 
before  McClellan  was  to 
attack,  the  Confederates 
evacuated  Yorktown.  Mc 
Clellan  ordered  Hooker  to 
pursue.  Overtaking  Johnston  at  Williamsburg,  Hooker  was 
repulsed,  after  which  Johnston  retreated  rapidly  towards  Eich- 
mond.  McClellan  followed  with  such  slowness  that  fourteen 
days  were  consumed  in  marching  less  than  fifty  miles.  During 
the  whole  of  these  two  months,  he  enormously  overestimated 
the  force  by  which  he  was  confronted  and  continually  asked 
for  reinforcements.  On  the  17th  of  May,  Lincoln  ordered 
McDowell  to  join  McClellan,  but  the  order  was  not  carried  out, 
for  reasons  that  will  now  be  given. 

federate  major  general  in  1861 ;  had  charge  of  campaigns  in  Virginia  till  he 
was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  and  was  superseded  by  General 
Lee ;  was  raised  to  full  rank  of  general  and  sent  to  relieve  Vicksburg,  but 
failed;  succeeded  Bragg;  was  driven  by  Sherman  from  Chattanooga  to 
Atlanta,  where  he  was  superseded  by  Hood ;  was  recalled  to  confront  Sher 
man  in  North  Carolina ;  surrendered  to  Sherman,  April  26,  1865.  He  was 
one  of  the  ablest  strategists  of  the  war. 


GENERAL  JOSEPH  E.  JOHNSTON. 


390 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 


[§493 


493.  Stonewall  Jackson's  Movements.  —  The  slowness  of  Mc- 
Clellan's  advance  up  the  Peninsula  not  only  relieved  the 
Confederate  government  of  any  fear  for  the  safety  of  its  capi 
tal,  Richmond,  but  also  showed  that  General  Thomas  J.  Jack 
son's  corps  could  safely  be  spared  for  operations  against  the 
Federals  in  the  North.  In  order  to  defeat  the  larger  forces 
of  McDowell,  Banks,  and  Fremont,  Jackson1  decided  first  to 

strike  the  central  army  of  the 
Union  troops,  and  then  to  destroy 
the  two  wings  in  turn  before  they 
could  unite.  Advancing  with 
Napoleonic  rapidity  from  Staun- 
ton,  he  fell  upon  Banks  near 
Winchester,  Virginia,  and  not 
only  routed  him,  May  25,  but 
drove  him  across  the  Potomac 
into  Maryland.  Then  retracing 
his  steps,  he  turned  his  face  west 
ward,  and  in  a  similar  manner 
overwhelmed  the  army  of  Fre 
mont  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8. 
Meanwhile,  General  Shields  of 
McDowell's  army,  who,  with  a 
force  about  the  size  of  Jackson's,  had  crossed  the  Blue 
Ridge  in  order  to  assist  Fremont,  found,  on  his  arrival  in 
the  Valley,  that  Fremont's  army  had  been  broken  up  and 
practically  dispersed.  Jackson  had  no  difficulty  in  defeating 
Shields,  at  Port  Republic,  as  he  had  defeated  the  others. 


STONEWALL  JACKSON. 


iBorn  in  Virginia,  1824;  died,  1863.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1846; 
fought  in  Mexican  War ;  taught  in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute  at  Lexing 
ton  ;  was  appointed  brigadier  general  in  1861 ;  held  his  command  with  such 
firmness  at  Bull  Run  that  the  epithet  "  Stonewall "  was  given  him,  1861 ; 
outgeneraled  Fremont,  Banks,  and  Pope,  May  and  June,  1862;  defeated  the 
Union  forces  at  Cedar  Mountain,  August  9;  seized  Harper's  Ferry,  Septem 
ber  15 ;  commanded  left  wing  at  Antietam,  September  17 ;  took  important 
part  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862 ;  made  the  deciding  move  at  Chan- 
cellorsville,  where,  by  mistake,  be  was  shot  by  one  of  his  own  men,  May,  1863. 


§  495]  THE   WAR   IN  THE  EAST.  391 

Thus,  in  thirty-five  days,  Jackson's  army  had  marched  two 
hundred  and  forty-five  miles,  had  fought  three  important 
battles,  besides  two  minor  ones,  winning  them  all,  and  had 
practically  destroyed  three  Union  armies.  He  had  also  kept 
forty  thousand  men  under  McDowell  from  joining  McClellan. 
Leaving  a  portion  of  his  troops  to  keep  up  an  appearance  of 
activity,  he  now  turned  swiftly  to  the  south  with  the  major 
part  of  his  force,  and  within  a  week  was  ready  to  cooperate 
with  Lee  against  McClellan.  His  movements  had  been  so 
rapid  and  mysterious  that  his  departure  was  not  detected  at 
Washington,  and  McDowell  was  needlessly  kept  in  his  place 
for  the  defense  of  the  capital. 

494.  McClellan's  Slow  Advance.  —  While  Jackson  was  caus 
ing  havoc  near  Washington,  McClellan  was  slowly  making  his 
way  toward  Richmond.     On  the  llth  of  May,  he  learned  that 
the  Confederates  had  evacuated  Norfolk   and  destroyed  the 
iron-clad  Merrimac,  thus  leaving  the  James  open  for  the  Fed 
eral  fleet.     The  Monitor,  with  its  attending  vessels,  came  up 
the  James  River,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Drury's  Bluff,  almost 
within  gunshot  of  Richmond.     Had  McClellan  pushed  rapidly 
on,  with  the  help  of  the  fleet  he  could,  in  the  opinion  of  many 
military  critics,  have  taken  the  city.     Richmond  was  thrown 
into   consternation.      But    McClellan's    movements   continued 
to  be  so  incredibly  slow  that  all  fear  was  soon  dispelled.     In 
stead  of  keeping  along  the  James,  as  he  should  have  done  as 
soon   as   he   learned   of    the   movements   of   the  Monitor,  he 
divided  his   army,   putting  part  of    his  forces  north  of    the 
Chickahominy  and  part  south  of  it.     The  bridges  were  greatly 
weakened  by  floods,  and  the  two  divisions  of  the  army,  thus 
separated,  were  in  serious  danger  of  not  being  able  to  cooper 
ate  in  case  they  should  be  attacked. 

495.  Confederate  Attacks.  —  McClellan's   headquarters  were 
at  G-aines's  Mill  on   the  north  side.     Johnston,  on   May  31, 
decided  to  attack  the  corps  that  confronted  him  at  Fair  Oaks, 
or  Seven  Pines,  on  the  south.     The  beginning  of  the  battle  was 


392  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1862.  [§496 

favorable  to  the  Confederates,  and  the  Federals  were  saved 
from  complete  rout  only  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  Sumner's 
corps,  which  came  over  "  swaying  and  tossing  bridges  "  from 
the  north.  But  the  serious  wounding  of  Johnston  and  the 
arrival  of  Sumner  turned  the  tide,  and  at  night  the  Unionists 
had  the  advantage.1  Johnston,  on  account  of  his  wound,  was 
obliged  to  retire  from  the  command.  In  the  morning,  a  new 
bridge  constructed  in  the  night  enabled  reinforcements  to  be 
transferred  from  the  north  side ;  but  McClellan,  who  arrived  on 
the  field  only  late  in  the  day,  instead  of  ordering  an  immediate 
pursuit,  expressed  himself  as  satisfied  and  recalled  his  army 
to  the  ground  it  had  occupied  before  the  battle.  A  Federal 
corps  at  one  time  was  within  four  miles  of  Richmond,  and 
it  is  probable  that,  if  a  prompt  advance  had  taken  place, 
like  that  of  Grant  on  the  second  day  at  Shiloh  (§  478),  the 
city  would  have  fallen,  for  the  fortifications  which  later  made 
Richmond  impregnable  from  this  direction  had  not  yet  been 
constructed. 

496.  General  Robert  E.  Lee.2 — General  Lee,  who  up  to  this 
time  was  Davis's  chief  of  staff,  now  succeeded  Johnston  as 
general  in  command.  He  immediately  gathered  the  reins  into 
his  hands,  and  quickly  showed  that  genius  for  organization 
and  action  for  which  he  soon  became  so  celebrated.  Directing 
Longstreet  to  be  prepared  for  an  attack  at  any  moment  on  his 

1  The  losses  of  the  Federals  were  5031 ;    those  of  the  Confederates,  6134. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  II.,  p.  219. 

2  Born  in  Virginia,   1807;  died,   1870.     Graduated   at  West  Point,  1829; 
distinguished  himself  as  engineer  in  Mexican   War;  was  commandant  at 
West  Point,  1852-1855;  resigned  when  Virginia  seceded,  and  was  appointed 
general  in  the  Confederate  army,  April,  1861;  succeeded  General  Johnston, 
May  31,  1862;  commanded  against  McClellan  in  the  "  Seven  Days'  Battles  "  ; 
defeated  Pope  in  the  second  battle  at  Bull  Run :   fought  the  drawn  battle  of 
Antietam;    gained  great  victories  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville ; 
was  defeated  at  Gettysburg ;  fought  stubbornly  against  Grant's  larger  forces 
at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  and  Cold  Harbor ;  held  out  against  assaults  on 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  till  April,  1865 ;  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  Grant, 
April  9, 1865 ;  became  president  of  Washington  and  Lee  University,  Lexington 
Virginia,  where  he  remained  till  his  death. 


§497] 


THE    WAR   IN   THE   EAST. 


393 


right,  he  devoted  the  major  part  of  his  energies  to  the  con 
struction  of  works  which  should  make  his  lines  impregnable. 
Though  McClellan's 
force  was  nearly  twice 
that  of  Lee,  the  in 
dustrious  Confederates 
were  not  interfered 
with.  At  length,  near 
the  last  of  June,  Lee 
completed  arrange 
ments  for  an  offensive 
movement.  As  Jack 
son  had  now  finished 
his  destructive  work 
in  the  vicinity  of 
Washington,  Lee  or 
dered  him  to  move 
rapidly  to  the  south, 
so  as  to  be  ready  for 
an  attack  on  McClel 
lan's  flank-  and  rear. 
The  united  forces  of 
Lee  and  Jackson, 
amounting  to  fifty-five 
thousand,  were  now 

ready  to  fall  upon  the  Federals  north  of  the  Chickahominy, 
just  as  McClellan,  with  the  larger  part  of  his  force,  was  pre 
paring  to  advance  south  of  it. 

497.  The  First  of  the  Seven  Days'  Battles.  —  The  arrival  of 
Jackson  was  half  a  day  later  than  had  been  expected,  and  con 
sequently  the  first  Confederate  attack  was  repulsed.  But  the 
next  day,  June  27,  with  Lee  in  command,  the  Confederates, 
fifty-five  thousand  strong,  led  by  Jackson,  Longstreet,  D.  H. 
Hill,  and  A.  P.  Hill,  at  Gaines's  Mill  assaulted  the  Federals, 
thirty-one  thousand  strong,  under  the  command  of  General 


GENERAL  R.  E.  LEE. 


394  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§498 

Fitz  John  Porter.  A  stubborn  and  magnificent  resistance  was 
made,  but  it  was  only  partially  successful.  Porter,  however, 
with  the  help  of  reinforcements  from  Sumner,  was  able  to 
withdraw  in  good  order  to  the  south  side  of  the  river.  While 
the  battle  on  the  north  side  of  the  Chickahominy  was  going  on, 
there  were  only  about  twenty-five  thousand  Confederates  on 
the  south  side,  under  Magruder,  between  Eichmond  and  the 
seventy  thousand  under  McClellan.  Again,  however,  no  at 
tempt  was  made  to  take  the  capital. 

498.  McClellan's  Change  of  Base.  —  McClellan  believed  that 
he  was  confronted  by  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
men,  and  for  safety  determined  to  change  his  base  of  supplies 
and  transfer  his  army  to  the  James  Eiver.     In  this  move  he 
completely  deceived  Lee,  and,  after  destroying  a  large  part  of 
his  stores,  brought  his  army  together  in  an  orderly  retreat. 
The  Confederates  pursued,  and  severe  battles  took  place  at 
Savage's  Station,  Frayser's  Farm,  and  G-lendale.      The  attacks 
of  the  Confederates  were,  however,  repulsed.     Finally,  Lee,  in 
opposition  to  the  advice  of  his  generals,  determined  on  a  des 
perate  assault  upon  Malvern  Hill,  where  McClellan  was  very 
strongly  posted.     The  Confederates  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter,  July  I.1     Then  McClellan,  who  had  won  the  ma 
jority  of  the  battles,  but  had  lost  the  campaign,  withdrew  his 
army  to  Harrison's  Landing  on  the  James  River. 

PUBLIC   FEELING   IN   THE   NORTH   AND   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

499.  Influence   of   McClellan's   Defeat.  —  McClellan's   defeat 
greatly  depressed  the  North  and  cheered  the  South ;  but  Lin 
coln  showed  his  spirit  by  issuing  a  circular  letter  to  the  gov 
ernors  of  the  loyal  states,  in  which  he  declared  that  his  purpose 
was  to  fight  the  war  through  to  the  restoration  of  the  Union, 
and  expressed  the  belief  that  the  cause  would  best  be  promoted 
if  a  call  for  new  troops  were  first  suggested  by  the  governors. 

JIn  the  Seven  Days'  Battles,  McClellan's  loss  was  15,849;   Lee's,  20,135. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  II.,  p.  315. 


§501]  PUBLIC   FEELING   IN   THE   NORTH.  395 

The  governors  accordingly,  on  July  2,  in  a  circular  letter,  asked 
the  President  to  call  for  "  men  enough  to  speedily  crush  the 
rebellion."  Lincoln  called  for  three  hundred  thousand  volun 
teers,  and  so  hearty  was  the  response,  that  the  number  fur- 
ished  was  over  four  hundred  and  twenty-one  thousand. 

500.  Attitude  of  Congress.  —  Congress,  also,  showed  that  there 
could  be  no  thought  of  abandoning  the  contest,  but,  on  the  con 
trary,  promptly  authorized  the  President  to  take  possession  of 
all  the  railroads  and  telegraph  lines  whenever  the  public  ser 
vice  should  seem  to  require  it.     Faith  in  the  future  was  further 
more  proved  by  the  enactment  of  many  laws  of  a  far-reaching 
nature.     Besides  other  important  measures,  Congress  provided 
for  the  construction  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  established 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  voted  the  "Morrill  Grant," 
which  gave  to  each  state  as  many 'times  thirty  thousand  acres 
of  land  as  it  had  members  of  Congress,  for  the  support  of 
colleges  in  which  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts  should 
be  especially  taught.      The  Morrill  Act  was  the  foundation 
of   most  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  many  of  the  state 
universities  in  the  country,  and  thus  was  of  great  educational 
importance. 

501.  The  Question  of  Slavery.  —  In  the  course  of  the  summer 
there  was  a  general  demand  on  the  part  of  radical  Republicans 
that,  either  by  act  of  Congress  or  by  proclamation  of  the  Presi 
dent,  slavery  should  be  abolished.     Lincoln  held  the  opinion 
that  slavery  could  not  be  interfered  with  by  Congress,  but  only 
by  an  amendment  of  the  Constitution  or  as  a  war  measure  by 
the  President,  as  commander  in  chief  of  the  army.    Fremont  had, 
as  we  have  seen  (§  470),  declared  the  slaves  free  in  Missouri, 
and  Hunter  had  done  the  same  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida ;  but  the  President  had  promptly  annulled  both  these 
orders,  with  the  declaration  that  he  could  not  allow  any  general 
to  free  the  slaves  and  throw  the  responsibility  of  the  act  upon 
the  President.     Lincoln's  course  provoked  much  opposition  on 
the  part  of  radical  opponents  of  slavery,  and  their  dissatisfaction 


396  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§  502 

was  strongly  expressed,  August  20,  in  an  editorial  of  Horace 
Greeley's  in  the  Tribune,  entitled  "  The  Prayer  of  Twenty  Mil 
lions."  Lincoln's  clear  and  pungent  answer l  served  to  satisfy 
public  opinion,  but  there  is  now  evidence  that  he  was  thinking 
seriously  of  the  matter  of  emancipation.  On  the  13th  of  July, 
he  had  said  to  Seward  and  Welles  that  "  something  must  be  done 
in  the  line  of  a  new  policy,"  that  he  had  "  about  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  a  military  necessity,  absolutely  essential 
for  the  salvation  of  the  nation,  that  we  must  free  the  slaves,  or 
be  ...  ourselves  subdued."  Following  this  line  of  thought,  on 
the  22d  of  August,  he  surprised  all  the  members  of  his  Cabinet, 
excepting  Seward  and  Welles,  by  presenting  a  proclamation 
which  he  proposed  to  issue.  The  proposal  met  with  general 
favor,  but  Seward  questioned  the  expediency  of  issuing  it  at 
that  juncture.  In  view  of  recent  reverses,  he  thought  it  would 
be  regarded  as  "our  last  shriek  on  the  retreat."  Seward's 
objection  struck  the  President  with  force,  and  he  put  the 
proclamation  aside  to  await  a  victory. 

502.  Dangers  from  Great  Britain.  —  The  ill  feeling  of  Great 
Britain,  which  showed  itself  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and 
was  intensified  by  the  Trent  affair,  in  November,  1861,  was 
still  further  increased  by  the  reverses  of  McClellan.  It  was 
apparent  that  a  majority  of  the  British  upper  and  middle 
classes  favored  the  South,  that  leading  statesmen  regarded  the 
defeat  of  the  Union  cause  as  inevitable,  and  that  the  most 
delicate  tact  of  diplomacy  would  be  needed  to  prevent  a  formal 
recognition  of  the  Confederacy.  In  March,  1862,  the  Florida, 
a  vessel  built  and  equipped  for  service  with  the  Confederates, 

1  "  My  paramount  object  in  this  struggle,"  replied  Lincoln,  "  is  to  save  the 
Union,  and  is  not  either  to  save  or  to  destroy  slavery.  If  I  could  save  the 
Union  without  freeing  any  slaves,  I  would  do  it ;  and  if  I  could  save  it  by 
freeing  all  its  slaves,  I  would  do  it ;  and  if  I  could  save  it  by  freeing  some  and 
leaving  others  alone,  I  would  also  do  that.  What  I  do  about  slavery  and 
the  colored  race,  I  do  because  I  believe  it  helps  to  save  the  Union,  and  what  I 
forbear,  I  forbear  because  I  do  not  believe  it  would  help  to  save  the  Union. 
I  shall  do  less  whenever  I  believe  what  I  am  doing  hurts  the  cause,  and  I 
shall  do  more  whenever  I  shall  believe  doing  more  will  help  the  cause." 


§503]  THE   WAR  IN  THE   EAST   CONTINUED.  397 

sailed  from  Liverpool.  Though  seized  at  Nassau,  she  was 
acquitted  by  what  the  British  Chief  Justice  afterward  called 
"  a  miscarriage  of  justice/'  and  set  free.  In  June  attention 
was  called  to  a  far  more  serious  matter.  The  American 
Minister  at  London,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  and  Mr.  Dudley, 
the  American  Consul  at  Liverpool,  became  aware  that  another 
war  steamer,  far  more 'powerful  than  the  Florida,  was  being 
fitted  out  for  the  Confederate  service.  Adams  at  once  called 
the  attention  of  Lord  Eussell,  the  British  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  to  the  fact,  and  asked  that  the  ship  be  detained,  unless 
it  should  be  found,  on  investigation,  that  its  purpose  was  not 
hostile  to  the  United  States.  The  British  government  was 
bound  by  international  usage  either  to  arrest  the  vessel  or 
make  the  investigation  requested.  They  undertook  the  latter 
course,  but  the  process  was  so  slow,  and  the  work  on  the  ship 
was  so  rapid,  that  just  before  an  arrest  was  to  be  made,  the 
vessel  escaped  and  put  to  sea.  This  was  the  famous  Ala 
bama,  which,  with  the  Florida  and  the  Georgia,  very  nearly 
cleared  the  ocean  of  American  commerce. 


THE   WAR   IN  THE   EAST  CONTINUED. 

503.  Pope  and  Halleck.  —  Nearly  a  month  before  the  end  of 
McClellan's  Peninsula  campaign,  the  President  summoned 
General  John  Pope  from  the  West,  where  he  had  been  suc 
cessful  as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
remnants  of  the  forces  of  McDowell,  Banks,  and  Fremont 
were  consolidated  by  Pope  into  a  new  organization,  known 
as  the  Army  of  Virginia,  and  pushed  forward  to  the  Rapidan 
River.  McClellan,  on  reaching  Harrison's  Landing  (§  498), 
had  written  the  President  that  his  "army  had  been  saved," 
but  that  it  was  completely  exhausted,  and  needed  a  reen- 
forcement  of  one  hundred  thousand  men.  This  surprising 
statement,  prompted  by  McClellan's  standing  belief  that  Lee's 
forces  greatly  outnumbered  the  Federal  army,  induced  Lin 
coln  to  visit  the  camp  at  once.  After  a  long  conference  with 


398 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 


[§503 


McClellan,  Lincoln  decided,  on  July  11,  to  appoint  Major  Gen 
eral  Henry  W.  Halleck1  general  in  chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the 

United  States.  Hal 
leck  had  commended 
himself  to  the  coun 
try  by  successfully 
'  directing  affairs  in 
the  West.  Lee,  antici 
pating  the  course  of 
Halleck,  whom  he  had 
formerly  known  well, 
immediately  detached 
Jackson  from  his 
army  before  Rich 
mond,  and  sent  .him 
to  confront  Pope. 
Halleck  visited  Mc 
Clellan  on  July  24, 
and,  immediately  af 
terward,  in  order  ulti 
mately  to  reenforce 
Pope,2  ordered  that 
the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  be  withdrawn,  and  be  transferred  by  way  of  Fortress 


MAJOR  GENERAL  H.  W.  HALLEOK. 
[By  courtesy  of  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.] 


iBorn  in  New  York,  1815;  died,  1872.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1839; 
published  classic  work  on  Elements  of  Military  and  Naval  Science,  1846; 
was  prominent  in  military  and  political  affairs  in  California,  1846-1854;  was 
appointed  major  general  of  the  Department  of  Missouri,  1861;  was  ad 
vanced  to  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Mississippi  in  1862;  was 
made  general  in  chief  of  the  army,  which  position  he  held  till  Grant  ranked 
him  as  lieutenant  general;  commanded  the  Pacific  Division,  1865-1869; 
Division  of  the  South,  1869-1872. 

2  Born,  1823;  died,  1892.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1842;  was  in  Mexican 
War;  became  an  explorer,  and  on  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War  received  a 
command  in  Maryland ;  captured  a  Confederate  force  at  Blackwater  in  Decem 
ber,  1861;  took  Memphis  and  Island  No.  10  in  1862;  was  advanced  to  com 
mand  of  the  Army  of  Virginia ;  after  defeat  at  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and 
Chantilly,  was  relieved  of  command  and  sent  against  insurgent  Indians  in 
Minnesota ;  was  department  commander  till  1886 ;  major  general  in  1892. 


§  504]  THE    WAR   IN    THE   EAST   CONTINUED.  399 

Monroe  to  the  Potomac  near  Fredericksburg.  The  McClellan 
campaign  was  thus  admitted  to  have  been  a  failure.  Lee,  now 
freed  from  danger  in  the  vicinity  of  Eichmond,  hastened  to 
reenforce  Jackson  by  sending 
to  the  Bapidan  Longstreet's 
corps,  which  arrived  on  the 
loth  of  August.  A  little 
later,  Lee  followed  and  took 
command  of  the  entire  force. 
504.  The  Second  Battle  of 
Bull  Run,  or  Manassas.  —  In 
the  last  week  of  August,  Lee 
sent  Jackson  and  Longstreet 
in  succession  around  Pope's 
right  flank,  interposing  their 
forces  between  him  and 
Washington.  Before  any  of 
McClellan's  army,  except  Fitz 
John  Porter's  corps,  had  ar 
rived,  the  forces  of  Lee  and 

„        ,  ...  -IT,,!  GENERAL  JOHN  POPE. 

Pope  fought  the  second  battle        [By  courtesy  of  G  p  Putnam,s  8ong>] 

of  Manassas,  or  Bull  Bun,  on 

the  29th  and  30th  of  August.  In  view  of  the  position  of 
the  forces,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  Union  army,  numbering 
about  sixty  thousand  men,  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  the 
Confederate  force  of  about  fifty  thousand.  The  Union  loss  was 
more  than  fourteen  thousand,  while  that  of  the  Confederates 
was  less  than  ten  thousand.  The  issue  of  the  battle  was,  at  the 
time,  largely  attributed  to  the  delay  of  McClellan's  force  in 
returning  from  the  James  Biver,  and  especially  to  the  failure 
of  General  Fitz  John  Porter's  corps l  to  render  the  proper  as 
sistance,  after  it  had  arrived. 

1  General  Porter's  failure  to  support  Pope  was  popularly  supposed  to  be 
owing  to  his  dissatisfaction  with  the  recall  of  McClellan.  He  was  tried  by 
court-martial  and  dismissed  from  the  army.  But  the  case  was  reviewed  by 
direction  of  Congress,  and  he  was  acquitted  in  1878,  and  in  1886  was  restored 
to  his  army  rank. 


400  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [£505 

505.  Battle  of  Antietam,  or  Sharpsburg.  —  Lee,  instead  of 
making  a  direct  attack  on  Washington,  decided  to  cross  the 
Potomac  for  an  invasion  of  Maryland  and  the  North.  His 
chief  purpose,  as  he  announced  in  a  proclamation,  was  to  arouse 
the  Confederate  sentiment  in  Maryland  and  unite  the  state 
with  the  Confederacy.  Crossing  the  river  near  Harper's  Ferry, 
he  took  Frederick  City  and  pushed  forward  toward  Penn 
sylvania.  But  no  signs  of  a  sympathetic  rising  of  the  people 
encouraged  him.  He  was  surprised  to  find  that  even  farmers 
whom  he  supposed  to  be  Southern  sympathizers  would  not 
sell  their  produce  for  Confederate  money.  As  soon  as  Lee 
saw  that  he  was  not  to  get  supplies  in  Maryland,  he  sent 
Stonewall  Jackson  back  to  take  Harper's  Ferry  and  thus 
open  communications  for  supplies  with  the  rich  Shenandoah 
Valley.  The  heights  above  Harper's  Ferry  had  been  neglected 
by  the  Federals,  and  Jackson  easily  took  the  place,  with  twelve 
thousand  five  hundred  prisoners.  McClellan,  who  on  the  2d 
of  September,  had  arrived  in  Georgetown  with  the  major  part 
of  his  army,  after  a  long  conference  with  the  President  in 
Washington,  was  directed  to  resume  command,  not  only  of  his 
own  forces,  but  also  of  the  Army  of  Virginia.  By  spasmodic 
promptness  of  movement,  and  encouraged  by  an  accidental 
discovery  of  Lee's  orders  disclosing  his  whole  plan  of  campaign, 
the  Union  commander  was  able  to  advance  so  rapidly  as  to 
throw  his  army  in  front  of  Lee.  McClellan  was  jubilant,  and 
had  confident  hope  of  destroying  or  capturing  Lee's  army. 
But  his  later  movements  were  so  dilatory  that  Jackson  returned 
from  Harper's  Ferry  before  the  battle.  The  two  armies  first 
came  in  contact  in  the  vicinity  of  South  Mountain.  The  pre 
liminary  conflict  was  decidedly  in  McClellan's  favor.  Then 
occurred  the  desperate  battle  of  Sharpsburg,  or  Antietam,  on 
the  17th  of  September.  The  Union  army  was  the  larger  of  the 
two,  but  the  number  of  the  forces  engaged  cannot  be  confidently 
estimated.  The  tactics  of  McClellan  on  the  field  have  been 
regarded  by  military  critics  as  very  faulty,  while  Lee  is  thought 
to  have  handled  his  troops  with  great  skill.  It  was  the  most 


§  500]  THE   WAR   IN   THE   EAST   CONTINUED.  401 

desperate  and  bloody  single  day's  battle  of  the  war.  The  final 
advantage  was  with  the  Federals,  though  the  victory  was  not 
by  any  means  decisive.  The  losses  of  McClellan  were  more 
than  thirteen  thousand,  and  Lee's  more  than  eleven  thousand.1 
McClellan  had  lost  another  great  opportunity;  but  Lee's  ad 
vance  was  checked.  He  was  so  weakened  that  he  was  com 
pelled  to  withdraw  to  Virginia,  and  his  movement  as  a  whole 
was  a  failure.  At  this  time,  when  a  rapid  pursuit  might  have 
broken  up  Lee's  army,  which,  according  to  Longstreet,  was  so 
crippled  that  ten  thousand  fresh  troops  could  have  destroyed 
it,  McClellan  had  about  twenty  thousand  troops  in  reserve.  The 
latter,  mainly  in  consequence  of  his  excessive  caution  and  lack 
of  promptitude,  was  soon  superseded  by  General  A.  E.  Burnside.2 

506.  Burnside's  Disastrous  Campaign. — Burnside  hastily 
brought  together  all  the  Union  forces  in  north  Virginia  for  the 
purpose  of  a  direct  advance  on  Richmond.  With  an  army 
which,  early  in  December,  numbered  about  one  hundred  and 
thirteen  thousand  men,  he  crossed  the  Rappahannock  at  Fred- 
ericksburg;  but  Lee  and  Jackson  had  reached  the  southern 
bank  before  him,  and  had  posted  their  forces  advantageously  on 
the  high  grounds  back  of  the  town.  Burnside,  having  arranged 
his  army  in  three  divisions,  under  Franklin,  Hooker,  and  Sum- 
ner,  crossed  the  river  on  December  13,  and  had  the  temerity 
to  attempt  to  carry  the  works  by  storm.  The  result  was 
disastrous.  The  Union  army  was  pushed  back  in  confusion 
upon  the  river,  and  might  have  been  annihilated  if  Lee  had 

1  McClellan  reported  that  the  force  under  his  command  numbered  87,164, 
but  only  about  60,000  were  in  the  battle.    Lee  says  that  his  own  force  engaged 
was  "less  than  40,000  men."      The   Union   losses  were  13,203;    the  Confed 
erate,  11,172.    See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  601-603. 

2  Born  in  Indiana,  1824;  died,  1881.    Graduated  at  West  Point,  1847;  led 
a  brigade  at  Bull  Kun;  commanded  an  expedition  to  Roanoke  Island,  Febru 
ary  8,  1862 ;  commanded  a  corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  at  South  Moun 
tain  and  Antietam ;  succeeded  McClellan  in  November,  1862 ;  was  disastrously 
defeated  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862 ;  was  superseded  by  Hooker  in 
January,  1863 ;  was  sent  to  defend  Knoxville,  Tennessee ;  was  corps  commander 
in  Army  of  the  Potomac  till  close  of    the  war ;  governor  of  Rhode  Island, 
1867-1869;  United  States  senator,  1875-1881. 


402 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862. 


[§507 


used  his  advantage.     As  it  was,  Burnside  safely  withdrew  his 
shattered  forces  to  the  north  side  of  the  river.    The  Union  loss 

_______  was    over    twelve    thou 

sand,  while  the  Confed 
erates  lost  considerably 
less  than  six  thousand.1 
General  Joseph  E. 
Hooker  soon  superseded 
Burnside,  and  the  Union 
army  went  into  winter 
quarters.  Lincoln  was 
especially  depressed  by 
the  result,  as  he  had 
hoped  for  a  victory 
which  would  counteract 
the  hostility  of  Great 
Britain.  The  contrary 
effect  was  indicated  by 
the  London  Tim.es,  which 
referred  to  the  battle  as 
"a  memorable  day  to 
the  historian  of  the  De 
cline  and  Fall  of  the  American  Kepublic."  Throughout  the 
North,  the  following  days  were  days  of  darkness  and  gloom. 
Stocks  declined,  and  troops  volunteered  more  slowly  than  ever 
before. 

DOMESTIC    AND   FOREIGN  EFFECTS  OF  THE   CAMPAIGNS 

OF   1862. 

507.  Military  Results  of  the  Year.  —  Thus  the  events  of  the 
year,  notwithstanding  great  losses  on  both  sides,  had  not  essen 
tially  changed  the  situation.  While  no  territory  of  impor 
tance  had  been  lost,  no  considerable  gain  had  been  secured. 

1  The  Union  force  "  available  for  line  of  battle  "  was  116,683;  the  Confed 
erate,  78,315.  The  Union  loss  was  12,653 ;  the  Confederate,  5377.  See  Battles 
and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  TIL,  pp.  145-147. 


"GENERAL,  A.  E.  BURNSIDE. 


§  509]  DOMESTIC   AND  FOREIGN   EFFECTS.  403 

McClellan,  McDowell,  Banks,  Fremont,  Pope,  and  Burnside 
had  all  proved  unable  to  cope  successfully  with  their  oppo 
nents,  and  had  all  been  relieved.  Up  to  the  end  of  1862, 
the  military  successes  of  the  Union  troops  had  all  been  in 
the  West  and  the  great  losses  had  all  been  in  the  East.  The 
military  history  of  the  year  had  made  it  evident  to  President 
Lincoln  and  to  Congress  that  every  resource  of  the  North 
must  at  once  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  conflict  in  order 
to  insure  success.  The  commander  capable  of  holding  his 
own  against  Lee  had  not  yet  appeared.  It  was  to  require 
another  year  to  reveal  him.  Meanwhile,  the  necessities  of 
the  situation  led  to  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  the  levy 
of  new  taxes,  and  the  conscription  of  troops. 

508.  Emancipation  of  Slaves.  —  In  March,  1862,  slavery  had 
been  abolished  in  the  territories  by  Act  of  Congress,  and  in 
April,  emancipation  had  taken  place  in  the  District  of  Colum 
bia.     In  the  same  year,  Lincoln  had  urged  the  governors  of 
the  border  states  to  adopt  a  proposition  for  compensation  to 
such  of  the   border   states   as   might   abolish   slavery.      The 
failure  of  the  Peninsula  campaign  and  the  campaign  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  and  the  defeat  at   Manassas,  convinced 
the  President  that  emancipation  was  justifiable  as  a  war  meas 
ure,  and  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  a  victory  could  be  se 
cured.     Accordingly,  immediately  after  the  battle  of  Antietam, 
he  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  that  in  such  slaveholding 
states  as  should  not  have  returned  to  their  allegiance  to  the 
United  States  on  January  1,  1863,  all  slaves  would,  on  that 
day,  be  declared  free.     As  none  of  the  seceding  states  returned 
to  its  allegiance,  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipation  was  issued 
on  the    1st    of   the    following   January,   and    thereafter,   all 
negroes  in  these  states  were  regarded  by  the  Union  army  as 
free  men. 

509.  Influence  of  Emancipation  on  the  War.  —  The  effect  of 
the  Emancipation  Proclamation  was  not  quite  what  was  antici 
pated.     Contrary   to   general   expectation  in   the  North,   the 


404  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1862.  [§  51* 

negroes  showed  remarkable  faithfulness  in  remaining  with 
their  old  masters.  They  were  very  generally  employed  in  the 
South  in  caring  for  the  plantations,  and  sometimes  were  used 
for  work  on  fortifications.  It  was  only  in  recovered  territory 
that  their  relations  were  much  changed.  Before  the  end  of 
the  war,  about  one  hundred  thousand  of  them  were  enlisted 
in  the  Union  army,  and  they  fought  with  great  bravery.  As 
the  South  refused  to  recognize  them  as  soldiers,  they  could 
not  be  exchanged  when  taken  prisoners.  The  embarrassment 
which  followed  had  much  to  do  with  the  entire  cessation  of 
exchanges  in  the  latter  part  of  the  war.  In  consequence  of 
this  cessation,  prisons  were  overcrowded  and  the  sufferings 
of  prisoners  increased. 

510.  Effect  of  Emancipation  upon  Europe.  —  In  Great  Britain, 
public  opinion  was  very  slow  to  respond  to  the  proclamation 
of  freedom.      The  fact  that  their  supply  of  cotton  was  cut 
off  by  the   more   complete   blockade   of   the    Southern   ports 
caused  great  suffering  on  the  part  of  the  British  manufactur 
ing  population.     While  the  laboring  classes  were  generally  in 
sympathy  with  the  North,  the  owners  of  the  factories  and  the 
wealthy  classes,  led  by  Palmerston,  the  Prime  Minister,  and 
Russell,  the  Foreign  Secretary,  were  in  favor  of  the  South. 
Many,  not  realizing  that  it  was  a  war  for  national  integrity, 
regarded  it  as  a  war  for  liberty  on  the  part  of  the  South,  and 
for  conquest  on  the  part  of  the  North. 

511.  Change  of  British  Policy.  —  About  the  middle  of  Octo 
ber,  1862,  the  danger  that  Great  Britain  might  recognize  the 
Southern  Confederacy  was  averted.     On  the  7th  of  October,  at 
a  banquet  at  Newcastle,  Gladstone,  then  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  declared,  "  Jefferson  Davis  and  other  leaders  of  the 
South  have  made  an  army;   they  are  making,  it  appears,  a 
navy;    and  they  have  made,  which  is  more  important  than 
either,  a  nation."     When  the  applause  which  followed   this 
utterance  had  subsided,  he  continued,  "We  may  anticipate, 
with  certainty,  the  success  of  the  Southern  states  so  far  as 


512] 


DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN  EFFECTS.  405 


their  separation  from  the  North  is  concerned."  This  speech, 
of  which  these  sentences  were  the  keynote,  created  a  great 
sensation,  and  was  immediately  interpreted  as  a  purpose  on 
the  part  of  the  government  to  recognize  the  Confederacy. 
The  American  Minister,  seeing  clearly  that  the  drift  was  un, 
mistakably  toward  recognition,  wrote  to  his  government  for 
instructions  in  such  a  dire  contingency.  Then  President  Lin 
coln  sent  a  masterly  letter  which  changed  the  whole  situation. 
His  instructions  to  Mr.  Adams  in  case  the  British  Ministry 
should  approach  him,  directly  or  indirectly,  on  any  matter  of 
our  internal  affairs,  were  as  follows :  "  You  will  answer  that 
you  are  forbidden  to  debate,  to  hear,  or  in  any  way  receive, 
entertain,  or  transmit  any  communication  of  the  kind.  If  the 
British  government,  either  alone,  or  in  combination  with  any 
other  government,  should  acknowledge  the  insurgents,  you 
will  immediately  suspend  the  exercise  of  your  functions,  and 
give  notice  of  that  suspension  to  Earl  Russell,  and  to  this 
department."  The  letter  also  contained  these  resolute  words : 
"  We  meet  and  confront  the  danger  of  a  war  with  Great  Britain. 
We  have  approached  the  contemplation  of  that  crisis  with  a 
caution  which  great  reluctance  has  inspired.  But  I  trust  that 
you  will  also  have  perceived  that  the  crisis  has  not  appalled 
us."  Adams  hesitated  to  present  this  letter  to  Earl  Russell, 
but  made  its  contents  known  to  Russell's  friend,  William  E. 
Forster,  and  gave  his  consent  that  Forster  should  in  turn  make 
them  known  to  Russell.  It  was  probably  at  this  juncture 
that  the  Queen,  if  the  "credible  report"  is  true,  said  to 
Russell,  "  My  lord,  no  step  must  be  taken  which  will  involve 
us  in  war  with  the  United  States."  On  October  23,  Russell 
informed  Adams  that  the  policy  of  neutrality  was  not  to  be 
changed 

512.  Suspension  of  Habeas  Corpus.  —  In  the  summer  of  1862, 
the  Northern  opponents  of  the  war  took  every  advantage  o* 
the  military  disasters  to  denounce  the  course  of  the  govern 
ment,  to  discourage  enlistments,  to  demand  a  cessation  of  hos- 


406  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1862.  [§  513 

tilities,  and,  in  many  ingenious  ways,  to  thwart  the  success  of 
the  Union  cause.  After  the  disasters  in  the  Peninsula  and  at 
Manassas,  the  clamors  were  so  great  and  the  difficulties  of  con 
viction  for  treason  so  many  that,  on  the  24th  of  September, 
President  Lincoln  issued  an  order  suspending  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  throughout  the  country.  This  act  was  of  doubtful  con 
stitutionality,  and  shows,  better  than  any  other  one  thing,  the 
almost  desperate  straits  into  which  the  government  was  driven. 
The  suspension  of  the  writ  enabled  the  military  authorities  to 
seize  and  imprison  without  trial  any  persons  who  might  be 
accused  of  treasonable  acts,  or  even  of  disloyal  speech.  Large 
numbers  were  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison.1 

513.  The  Elections  in  1862.  —  The  disasters  in  the  field  and 
the  suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  had  a  marked 
effect  on  the  fall  elections.  In  every  one  of  the  Northern 
states  the  Republican  majority  was  greatly  reduced,  and  in 
six  of  them 2  that  had  cast  their  votes  for  Lincoln  in  1860,  the 
Democrats  were  victorious.  The  House  of  Representatives 
barely  escaped  being  Democratic.  It  was  almost  a  vote  of 
"  want  of  confidence  "  in  the  President.  An  analysis  of  the 
vote  showed  that  many  of  the  people  regarded  the  Emanci 
pation  Proclamation  as  a  surrender  of  Lincoln  to  the  radical 
Republicans.  It  seems  certain  that  more  votes  were  lost  than 
gained  in  consequence  of  the  Proclamation.  But  the  Presi 
dent,  though  disappointed,  never  for  a  moment  swerved  from 
his  purpose,  as  his  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1862, 
plainly  showed. 

REFERENCES. — Grant,  Memoirs,  Vol.  I.,  242-284.  Rhodes,  History, 
Vol.  III.,  404-639,  for  the  period  from  the  appointment  of  Lee  to  the  cap 
ture  of  New  Orleans  ;  the  same,  Vol.  IV. ,  from  the  beginning  of  McClel- 

1  The  records  do  not  enable  one  to  give  the  numbers  so  arrested.    Alex 
ander  Johnston  estimates  the  number  as  thirty-eight  thousand.    Rhodes,  Vol. 
IV.,  p.  231,  seems  to  th'ink  this  number  is  an  exaggeration,  but  inclines  to  the 
belief  that  the  number  may  have  been  nearly  twenty  thousand. 

2  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin. 


REFERENCES.  407 

lan's  campaign  at  Yorktown  till  Lincoln's  reelection,  is  at  all  points 
full,  painstaking,  and  valuable.  Schouler's  History  of  the  United  States, 
Vol.  VI.,  covers  the  whole  period  and  is  valuable  on  all  points  of  the 
Civil  War.  Allan,  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  ;  Battles  and  Leaders  of 
the  Civil  War,  Vol.  I.,  388-443,  611-692,  Vol.  II.,  135,  189-319  ;  Dodge, 
Bird's-Eye  View  of  Our  Civil  War,  chaps,  vi.,  x.-xiii.  ;  Dabney,  Life  of 
Stonewall  Jackson  ;  Maclay,  History  of  the  United  States  Navy,  Vol.  II., 
282-324,  for  Monitor  and  Merrimac,  and  364-497,  for  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  ;  Old  South  Leaflets,  III.  No.  3,  for  contest  of  Monitor  and 
Merrimac.  The  biographies  of  Lincoln  by  Tarbell  and  by  Nicolay  and 
Hay  may  be  constantly  consulted  with  profit. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF    1863. 
VICKSBURG. 

514.  Situation  in  the  West.  —  At  the  opening  of  the  year 
1863,  it   was  evident  that  in  the  West  the  most   important 
military  operations  would  center  about  Vicksburg,  on  the  Mis 
sissippi  River,  and  Chattanooga,  in  eastern  Tennessee.     Vicks 
burg  was  a  strongly  fortified  city,  and  until  it  should  be  taken 
the  Mississippi  River  could  not  be  controlled  by  the  Union 
forces.     The  importance  of  the  place  lay  not  only  in  the  fact 
that  it  prevented  the  Federals  from  making  use  of  the  river, 
but  also  in  the  fact  that  it  furnished  the  Confederates  with 
easy  passage  for  troops  and  supplies  from  Texas  and  Mexico. 
In  strategic  importance,  it  was  scarcely  inferior  to  Richmond 
itself ;  for  it  now  held  the  only  remaining  railroad  which  ex 
tended  from  the  far  West  into  the  Eastern  states  of  the  Con 
federacy.     Chattanooga   was   also  important,  since  it  was  so 
situated  as  to  control,  not  only  Eastern  Tennessee,  but  also  the 
most  easy  and  natural  passage  from  Virginia  to  the  Southwest. 
Soon  after  Halleck  was  placed  in  command  at  Washington, 
in  July,  1862,  Grant  was  left  in  charge  of  the  territory  about 
Vicksburg,  and  Rosecrans  about  Chattanooga. 

515.  First  Efforts  against  Vicksburg.  — Vicksburg  is  situated 
on  a  high  bluff  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Mississippi.     Just 
above  the  town,  the  river  turns  sharply  to  the  northeast,  and 
then,  winding  into  a  loop  on  which  Vicksburg  is  built,  flows 
again   toward   the  southwest.     The    regions   west   and    south 
being  so  low  as  often  to  be  flooded,  and  the  territory  being 

408 


§  517]  VICKSBURG.  409 

intersected  by  numerous  streams,  military  movements  were 
rendered  extremely  difficult.  In  November  and  December, 
1862,  and  again  in  January,  1863,  unsuccessful  attempts  were 
made  against  the  city,  by  Grant  and  Sherman.  As  the  spring 
of  1863  advanced,  efforts  were  renewed.  Grant  cut  a  new 
channel  for  the  river,  across  the  neck,  hoping  to  leave  Vicks- 
burg  high  and  dry  inland.  In  this  endeavor  he  was  not  suc 
cessful. 

516.  Johnston  and  Pemberton.  —  The  Confederate  forces  in  the 
West  were  commanded  by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who 
had  now  recovered  from  his  wound  (§  495),  General  Pemberton 
being  second  in  command.     Johnston  desired  to  meet  Grant 
in  the  field,  thinking  that  thus  Vicksburg  could  best  be  held, 
and  ordered  Pemberton  to  conduct  operations  on  this  line ;  but 
Pemberton,  encouraged  by  some  recent  successes,  and  not  recog 
nizing  Johnston's  right  to  command  him,  chose  to  fight  behind 
the  fortifications  of  the  city.    This  difference  of  policy  divided 
their  forces,  so  that,  while  Pemberton  remained  at  Vicksburg, 
Johnston,  with  headquarters  at  Jackson,  held  himself  in  readi 
ness  to  attack  the  lines  of  Grant  as  opportunity  might  offer. 

517.  Capture  of  Vicksburg.  —  Grant's  next  strategic  move  was 
one  of  the  most  daringly  planned  and  brilliantly  executed  of  the 
whole  war.     It  was  to  pass  with  his  army  through  the  Louisi 
ana  swamps  west  of  the  city,  and,  cutting  himself  free  from 
his  base  of  supplies,  to  obtain  a  foothold  on  the  river  below, 
while  Admiral  Porter  should  force  a  passage  in  the   night 
with  his  gunboats  loaded  with  supplies.     The  movement,  in 
spite  of  determined  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Confederates, 
was  completely  successful.     After  several  minor  engagements, 
Grant  took  possession  of  the  country  as  far  as  eighty  miles 
south  and  west  of  Vicksburg.     Without  waiting  to  establish 
a  base  of  supplies,  and  disregarding  •  the  earnest  protest  of 
Sherman,  he   advanced,  May   7,  from  Grand  Gulf   northeast 
toward  Jackson.     Here,  on  May  14th,  he  defeated  Johnston, 
and  later  joined  with  Sherman  on  the  east  side  of  Vickburg, 


410 


THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF    1863. 


[§517 


thus  separating  the  Confederate  armies.      He  then  defeated 
Pemberton  in  the  open  field,  and  finally,  by  May  18,  drove 

him  behind  his  fortifica 
tions.1  After  weeks  of 
fruitless  effort,  Pember 
ton  was  obliged,  July  4, 
to  surrender  with  over 
twenty-nine  thousand 
prisoners  of  war.2  This 
was  by  far  the  great 
est  Union  victory  yet 
achieved,  and  the  number 
of  prisoners  was  the  lar 
gest  ever  surrendered  in 
America.  His  success 
made  Grant  the  foremost 
of  the  Federal  generals. 
Four  days  later,  Port  Hud 
son  also  surrendered,  and 
the  Mississippi  Elver 
throughout  its  course  was  opened  to  the  Union  army.  The 
Confederacy  was  thus  cut  into  two  parts,  and  no  reinforcements 
or  supplies  in  any  considerable  amount  could  thereafter  reach 
the  Southern  armies  from  the  west  side  of  the  river. 

1  Grant's  achievement  is  thus  described  by  Rhodes:    "In  nineteen  days 
Grant  had  crossed  the  great  river  into  the  enemy's  territory ;  had  marched 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  through  a  most  difficult  country,  skirmishing 
constantly ;   had  fought  and  won  five  distinct  battles,  .  .  .  had  taken  the 
capital  of  the  state  and  destroyed  its  arsenals  and  military  manufactories, 
and  was  now  in  the  rear  of  Vicksburg." — Rhodes,  History,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  310. 

2  Grant's  forces  at  the  beginning  of  the  siege  numbered  about  43,000,  but 
they  were  so  constantly  reenforced  that  at  the  end  he  had  not  less  than  about 
75,000.     Official  reports  of  the  Confederate  forces  have  not  been  preserved. 
Johnston,  June  4,  estimated  his  force  at  24,000  effective  men.    The  lowest 
estimate  of  Pemberton's  force  is  28,000;  the  highest,  60,000.    Grant's  aggre 
gate  losses  in  the  campaign  were  9362.       Confederate  reports  show  a  loss 
before  the  surrender  of  9059.      The  parole  lists  on  file  at  Washington  give  the 
names  of  29,491  who  surrendered.     See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War, 
Vol.  II.,  pp.  549-550. 


§518] 


THE  CHATTANOOGA  CAMPAIGN. 


411 


THE   CHATTANOOGA   CAMPAIGN. 

518.  Eastern  Tennessee:  Chickamauga.  —  While  Grant  was 
occupied  about  Vicksburg,  important  events  were  taking  place 
in  the  eastern  part 
of  Tennessee.  In 
June,  Rosecrans, 
who  had  been 
much  criticised  for 
inactivity  after  the 
battle  of  Stone 
River,  broke  up  his 
encampment  in  the 
vicinity  of  Murf  rees- 
borough.  Bragg  was 
a  few  miles  to 
the  south,  at  Shel- 
byville,  but  was 
soon  forced  to  fall 
back  on  Chatta 
nooga.  Rosecrans 
then  moved  so  far 
around  Bragg' s  army 
to  the  south  that 
the  Confederate  com 
mander  deemed  it  prudent  to  evacuate  Chattanooga  and  with 
draw  some  twelve  miles  into  Georgia.  Rosecrans  hastened  to 
pursue ;  but  Bragg,  after  receiving  reinforcements  under  Long- 
street  from  Virginia,  turned  upon  his  pursuers.  Rosecrans  drew 
back  toward  Chattanooga,  and  at  Chickamauga  was  vigorously 
attacked  by  Bragg.  The  battle  raged  furiously  for  two  days, 
September  19  and  20,  and  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  of 
the  war.  The  Union  forces  were  finally  driven  from  the  field.1 

1  The  army  of  Rosecrans,  according  to  official  returns,  numbered  56,965; 
that  of  Bragg,  71,551.  The  losses  of  Rosecrans  were  16,179;  those  of  Bragg, 
17,804.  See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  673-676. 


GENERAL  GEORGE  H.  THOMAS. 


412  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863.  [§518 

General  George  H.  Thomas,1  who,  like  Admiral  Farragut,  was  a 
Southern  officer  that  took  the  Union  side,  greatly  distinguished 
himself  by  withstanding  the  final  assaults  on  the  center,  and 
so  delayed  the  pursuit  that  the  Union  army  was  able  to  with 
draw  in  fair  condition  into  Chattanooga.  For  this  service, 
Thomas  was  afterwards  called  "  The  Eock  of  Chickamauga." 

519.  The   Situation  at  Chattanooga. — East  of   Chattanooga, 
at  a  distance  of  about  three  miles,  is  situated  a  long,  high  hill, 
rising  almost  to  the  magnitude  of  a  mountain,  known  as  Mis 
sionary  Eidge;   while   south   of  the   city   another   elevation, 
known  as  Lookout  Mountain,  rises  about  seventeen  hundred 
feet.     On  these  two  heights,  overlooking  Chattanooga,  Bragg 
established  his  army.    He  was  also  in  control  of  the  Tennessee 
Eiver.     The  force  of  Eose.crans,  shut  up  in  the  city,  had  only 
a  single  road,  known  by  the  soldiers  as  the  "cracker  trail," 
for  supplies  from  the  west.     Every  other  approach  was  com 
manded  by  the  Confederate  guns.      Bragg  was  so  sure  that 
the  Union  army  would  be  forced  to  surrender,  that  he  sent 
Longstreet  to  assist  in  the  siege  of  Knoxville,  which  city  was 
then  held  by  General  Burnside. 

520.  Grant  at  Chattanooga.  —  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Chicka 
mauga,  Eosecrans   was   relieved,  and   Grant,  who  had  been 
put  at  the  head  of  all  the  armies  west  of  the  Alleghanies, 
assumed  command  in  his  place.    To  reenforce  the  Union  forces, 
Hooker  was  sent  with  the  Twelfth  Corps  from  Virginia,  and 
Sherman,  with  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  was  brought  from 
Vicksburg  by  way  of  Memphis.     Hooker  took  a  position  on 

iBorn  in  Virginia,  1816;  died,  1870.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1840; 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Seminoles  and  in  the  Mexican  War;  com 
manded  a  Federal  brigade  in  Virginia  early  in  1861,  and  then  a  division  in 
Kentucky,  where  he  gained  an  important  Union  victory  at  Mill  Spring, 
January  19,  1862 ;  led  the  right  wing  at  Perryville,  and  the  center  at  Stone 
River ;  commanded  the  center  at  Chickamauga ;  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  at  Missionary  Ridge ;  cooperated  with  Sherman  in  the  advance 
on  Atlanta;  given  command  against  Hood,  whom  he  overwhelmed  at  Nash 
ville,  December  15  and  16,  1864. 


§521] 


THE  CHATTANOOGA  CAMPAIGN. 


413 


the  right,  Sherman  on  the  left,  while  Thomas,  with  the  Army 
of  the  Cumberland,  commanded  the  center. 

521.  Battles  of  Chattanooga. — Grant's  plan,  after  opening  a 
line  of  supplies,  was  to  have  the  two  wings  of  the  army  push 
back  the  opposing 
flanks  of  the  enemy  ' 
until  the  center  would 
be  obliged  to  retire 
from  Missionary  Ridge. 
Bragg's  left,  on  Look 
out  Mountain,  was  some 
five  miles  in  front  of 
his  main  line;  and 
Hooker's  army,  in  order 
to  dislodge  the  enemy, 
was  obliged  to  pass 
over  the  shoulder  of 
the  mountain.  The 
Twelfth  Corps  pushed 
up  the  mountain  side 
with  great  gallantry, 
fought  what  is  some 
times  called  "  The  Bat 
tle  above  the  Clouds," 
November  24,  and  soon 
succeeded  in  driving  the 

enemy  from  the  mountain  and  back  beyond  Missionary  Ridge. 
Sherman,1  on  the  left,   advanced  rapidly,  but  found  a  deep 

1  Born  in  Ohio,  1820;  died,  1891.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1840;  was  in 
the  Seminole  and  the  Mexican  Wars;  resigned,  and  engaged  in  business  in 
New  York,  California,  and  Kansas ;  superintended  Military  College  in  Louis 
ville,  1860-1861 ;  was  appointed  colonel,  1861 ;  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull 
Run ;  went  to  the  West  and  rendered  important  aid  at  Shiloh ;  was  advanced 
to  major  general  and  commanded  a  corps  at  Vicksburg;  commanded  the  left 
at  Chattanooga ;  was  given  entire  charge  in  the  West  when  Grant  went  to 
Washington ;  with  great  energy  and  skill  forced  General  Johnston  to  retire  to 
Atlanta;  took  Atlanta,  and,  in  November,  started  on  his  famous  "  march  to  the 


GENERAL  WILLIAM  T.  SHERMAN. 


414  THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF   18G3.  [§  522 

ravine  in  his  way.  Thomas  was  directed  to  engage  the  enemy 
in  front,  in  order  to  keep  the  Confederate  center  from  attack 
ing  Sherman,  but  not  to  advance  to  a  general  engagement.  His 
troops,  however,  not  to  be  outdone  either  by  the  Army  of 
Virginia  or  by  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  charged  up  the 
sides  of  Missionary  Ridge  and  drove  all  before  them.  Bragg's 
forces,  compelled  to  withdraw  November  25,  pushed  rapidly 
south  through  the  field  of  Chiskamauga  and  took  up  their 
winter  quarters  at  Dalton.1 

522.  Results   of  the   Campaigns   in  the  West.  — The  battles 
about  Chattanooga  closed  the  campaigns  for  the  year.     Ken 
tucky  and  Tennessee  had  been  secured  by  the  Union  forces, 
who,    through   the    opening    of    the   Mississippi    River,    were 
enabled  to  pass  freely  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     The  successes 
of  Grant  at  Vicksburg  and  Chattanooga  raised  him  to  such 
importance  that  in  November  he  was  called  to  Washington, 
and,  in  February,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general,  super 
seded  Halleck  as  general  in  chief  of  all  the  armies. 

EASTERN   CAMPAIGNS. 

523.  Chancellorsville.  —  In    the   East,   at   the   close    of    the 
Antietam   campaign,  McClellan,  as   we   have  seen,  had   been 
superseded   by   Burnside,   and    the   latter,   after    Fredericks- 
burg,  by  Hooker2  (§§  505-506).     In  April,  1863,  the  Union 

sea  "  ;  reached  Savannah  at  Christmas ;  received  Johnston's  surrender,  April  26, 
1865;  was  made  lieutenant  general  in  1866,  and  succeeded  Grant  as  general 
in  1869 ;  retired  in  1883 ;  published  important  memoirs. 

1  No  official  figures  indicating  the  relative  strength  of  Grant  and  Bragg  at 
Chattanooga    are   given.      Grant's    force  is    estimated    at    60,000,   that   of 
Bragg  at  considerably  less.    The  Union  loss  was  5817;  the  Confederate,  6687. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  729-730. 

2  Born  in  Massachusetts,  1814;  died,  1879.    Graduated  at  West  Point,  1837; 
distinguished  himself  in  Mexican  War;   was  appointed  brigadier  general  in 
1861;   had  important  commands  at  Yorktown,  Williamsburg,  Malvern  Hill, 
Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg ;  succeeded  Burnside  in  1803;  was  disastrously 
defeated  at  Chancellorsville;    was  sent  to  reen force  Grant  at  Chattanooga, 
where  he  commanded  the  right  wing;  accompanied  Sherman  to  Atlanta;  was 
brevetted  major  general  in  1865;  retired  in  1868. 


524] 


EASTERN   CAMPAIGNS. 


415 


army  of  about  ninety  thousand  advanced  southward  for  the 
purpose  of  pushing  its  way  by  direct  line  to  Richmond;  but 
a  few  miles  south 
of  Fredericksburg, 
Hooker  was  con 
fronted  (at  Chancel-  #p" 
lorsville)  by.  a  Con 
federate  army  of 
about  forty-five  thou 
sand  under  Lee  and 
Jackson.  The  battle 
which  ensued,  May 
3,  was  most  disas 
trous  to  the  Union 
cause.  By  superior 
generalship,  Lee  and 
Jackson  completely 
thwarted  the  strat 
egy  of  Hooker,  and 
not  only  repulsed  the 
Federal  army,  but 
threw  it  into  confu 
sion  and  drove  it 

back  to  the  north  side  of  the  Rappahannock.  The  Union  loss 
was  about  seventeen  thousand ;  the  Confederate,  about  twelve 
thousand.  The  loss  of  the  Confederates,  however,  was  not 
counted  by  numbers  alone;  for  just  before  the  main  battle, 
General  "  Stonewall "  Jackson,  the  most  successful  corps  com 
mander  that  the  war  produced  on  either  side,  was  accidentally 
fired  upon  and  killed  by  his  own  men. 

524.  Second  Advance  into  the  North. — Inspired  by  his  remark 
able  success  at  Chancellorsville,  Lee  decided  to  attempt  again  a 
movement  into  the  North.  Crossing  the  Blue  Ridge  and  march 
ing  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  he  passed  the  Potomac  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  and,  advancing  across  Maryland  into  Penrisyl- 


GKNERAL  JOSEPH  HOOKER. 


416 


THE   CAMPAIGNS    01    1863. 


[§524 


vania,  threatened,  not  only  the  rear  of  Washington,  but  also 
the  cities  of  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia.  Hooker  followed, 

keeping  at  the  right 
of  Lee,  between  Har 
per's  Ferry  and  Wash 
ington,  and  moving 
rapidly  northward  for 
the  protection  of  the 
threatened  cities.  The 
Union  army  was  re- 
enforced  from  every 
»^^  quarter.  On  the  28th 

•^  of  June,  Hooker  was 

Bfefc,  superseded    by    Gen- 

Jtirji  f^ai^fe*.          eral  George  G.  Meade,1 

of  Pennsylvania,  a 
soldierly  officer  who, 
though  uniformly  suc 
cessful  as  a  division 
and  corps  com 
mander,  had  as  yet 
occupied  only  a 
subordinate  position. 

Meade  pushed  his  force  of  about  ninety-three  thousand  rapidly 
forward  and  concentrated  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gettys 
burg,  taking  up  his  position  on  a  crest  of  hills  in  a  circular 
line  south  and  east  of  Gettysburg,  on  what  is  known  as  Ceme 
tery  Ridge.  The  Confederate  line  of  about  seventy  thousand 
occupied  the  hills  opposite,  on  Seminary  Kidge.2  At  the  Union 

1  Born  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  1815;  died,  1872.     Graduated  at  West  Point,  1835; 
fought  in  Seminole  and  Mexican  Wars ;  commanded  a  brigade  under  McClellan 
in  the  Peninsula,  where  he  was  wounded;  commanded  a  division  at  Antietam 
and  Fredericksburg,  and  a  corps  at  Chancellorsville ;  superseded  Hooker  in 
June,  1863;  won  the  great  victory  of  Gettysburg,  July  1,  2,  and  3;  commanded 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  under  Grant,  till  the  close  of  the  war. 

2  The  figures  here  given  are  those  reached  after  a  careful  computation  of 
the  entire  strength  of  both  armies,  with  the  additions  and  reductions  between 


GENERAL  GEORGE  G.  MEADE. 


525] 


EASTERN  CAMPAIGNS. 


417 


right  was  Gulp's  Hill,  and  at  the  left  were  two  hills,  known 
as  Round  Top  and   Little  Bound  Top.     Thus  situated,  both 
armies  made  ready  for  the  most  crucial  battle  of  the  war. 
If   Meade   should  be   over 
whelmed,  the  cities  of  the    ^ 
North   would   be    at    Lee's 
mercy,  and  the  Confederacy 
would,    in    all    probability 
be    recognized    in    Europe; 
while  if  Lee  should  be  de 
feated,  he  could  hardly  hope 
to   do    more    than    prolong 
an  unsuccessful  conflict. 

525.  Battle  of  Gettys 
burg. —  During  the  first  and 
second  days'  engagements, 
July  1  and  2,  the  Confeder 
ates  had  the  advantage. 
Gulp's  Hill  was  taken,  and 
the  Union  right  was  pushed 
back  from  its  strong  defen 
sive  line.  On  the  left,  however,  the  Unionists  took  and 
held  Little  Eound  Top.  On  the  other  parts  of  the  field  the 
repeated  onsets  of  the  'Confederates  were  not  successful. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day,  the  Federals  assaulted 
Gulp's  Hill,  and,  after  most  desperate  fighting,  succeeded 
in  retaking  it.  Lee  then  made  the  mistake  of  deciding 


GENERAL  JAMES  LONGSTREET.! 


the  crossing  of  the  Potomac  and  the  beginning  of  the  battle.  The  exact 
figures  are  93,500,  and  75,268,  but  it  is  estimated  that  Lee's  losses  by  sickness, 
straggling,  and  furnishing  guards  to  prisoners  before  the  battle  were  about 
five  thousand.  See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  p.  440. 

iBorn  in  South  Carolina,  1821.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1842;  served 
in  Mexican  War;  entered  Confederate  service;  commanded,  as  lieutenant 
general,  the  First  Corps  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  1862-1865;  served 
lor  a  short  time  in  Tennessee ;  wounded  at  the  Wilderness,  1864 ;  held  various 
Federal  offices  after  the  war,  among  them  the  mission  to  Turkey. 


418 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863. 


[§  525 


to  stake  everything  on  a  mighty  effort  to  break  the  Union 
center.  General  George  E.  Pickett's  division  of  Longstreet's 
corps,  consisting  of  about  fifteen  thousand  veterans,  was 
ordered  forward  for  a  charge.  After  a  tremendous  fire  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  cannon  for  two  hours,  for  the  purpose 
of  throwing  the  Union  line  into  confusion,  this  division,  made 
up  of  the  flower  of  the  Confederate  army,  rushed  forward  to 
.:•  .^ .. ..,  the  assault.  For  about  one 

mile  they  were  within 
range  of  the  Federal  guns. 
No  men  ever  fought  more 
bravely,  but  success  was 
impossible.  The  dead  and 
the  dying  strewed  the 
ground  along  the  way. 
Only  a  few  of  the  fifteen 
thousand  reached  the 
Union  line,  and  most  of 
these  were  obliged  to  give 
themselves  up  as  prison 
ers.  The  effort  failed,  and 
the  battle  was  lost.  Lee 
magnanimously  took  the 
whole  blame  of  the  defeat 
upon  himself,  although  he 
might,  seemingly,  have  thrown  part  of  it  on  subordinates.  The 
Confederate  loss  was  about  twenty  thousand,  while  that  of 
Meade  was  about  twenty-three  thousand.2  Lee  conducted  a  most 
skillful  retreat,  and  was  slowly  followed  by  the  tired  Unionists 

1  Born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  1825 ;  died,  1875.    Graduated  at  West  Point, 
1846;  served  well  in  Mexican  War  and  afterwards  on  Puget  Sound,  where  he 
resisted  encroachments  of  the  British ;  entered  Confederate  service  in  1861 ; 
brigadier  general,  1862 ;   wounded  at  Gaines's  Mill ;  commanded  charge  at 
Gettysburg;  in  1864  defended  Petersburg  skillfully  against  Butler;  engaged 
in  the  insurance  business  until  his  death. 

2  The  official  figures  are  20,451  and  23,003.    See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  437-439. 


GENEKAL  GEORGE  E.  PicKETT.1 


§  526]      EMBARRASSMENT  OF  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT.     419 

across  Maryland  into  Virginia,  until  the  two  armies  confronted 
each  other  on  the  Kapidan,  a  branch  of  the  Kappahannock.  There 
they  remained  more  or  less  inactive  until  the  following  spring. 

EMBARRASSMENT  OF   THE   FEDERAL   GOVERNMENT. 

526.    The  Conscription  of  Troops  in  the  North.  —  As  the  war 

dragged  along,  the  novelty  of  it  wore  off,  and  enlistments  in 
the  North  began  to  flag.  The  discouraging  outcome  of  the 
Peninsula  campaign  and  of  the  battles  of  Fredericksburg  and 
Chancellorsville  caused  a  rapid  decrease  in  the  number  of  vol 
unteers.  Draft,  or  conscription,  was  therefore  resorted  to  by 
Act  of  Congress,  March  3, 1863.  This  Act  of  Conscription,  how 
ever,  allowed  exemption  on  payment  of  three  hundred  dollars, 
an  amount  deemed  sufficient  for  securing  a  substitute.  As 
only  fifty  thousand  men  were  thus  obtained,  the  three  hun 
dred  dollar  clause  was  repealed,  July  4,  1864,  and  a  new  act 
declared  that  the  conscript  must  serve  or  provide  a  substitute. 
To  furnish  the  means  of  avoiding  such  an  alternative,  insurance 
companies  were  sometimes  formed,  and  at  times  as  much  as 
one  thousand  dollars  was  paid  for  a  substitute.  By  this  sys 
tem  the  service  was  much  demoralized,  for  the  large  sums 
offered  attracted  great  numbers  who  had  little  or  no  interest  in 
the  cause.  Thousands  of  this  class  deserted,  and  to  secure 
bounty,  reenlisted,  in  some  instances  many  times  over.  Thus 
"bounty  jumper"  became  a  term  of  deserved  reproach.  To 
the  first  of  the  Conscription  Acts  there  was  much  resistance, 
especially  in  New  York  City.  On  July  13,  1863,  a  mob  took 
possession  of  the  streets  and  had  entire  control  of  the  city  for 
several  days.  The  rioters  burned  about  fifty  buildings,  and 
hanged  negroes  to  lamp-posts.  The  colored  orphan  asylum 
was  burned,  and  the  inmates  were  with  difficulty  rescued  from 
the  flames.  It  was  not  until  troops  sent  from  Gettysburg  had 
come  to  assist  the  police  that  order  was  restored.  About  twelve 
hundred  of  the  rioters  were  killed.  Though  conscription  did 
not  of  itself  yield  very  many  soldiers  to  the  army,  it  greatly 
stimulated  volunteering. 


420  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1863.  [§  527 

527.  Conscription  in  the  South.  —  As  early  as  April,  1862, 
all  able-bodied  white  men  in  the  South  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen   and   forty-five    were   conscripted    (§   454) ;    and    in 
February,  1864,  the  age  limit  was  extended,  so  as  to  include 
all  from  seventeen    to   fifty.     Thus,    from    almost   the   very 
beginning  of.  the  war,  not  only  agriculture,  but  all  the  other 
industries  of  the  South  were  thrown  into  the  hands  of  men 
beyond  fifty,   of   women,  of  negroes,  and  of  children.     The 
suffering  that  ensued  may  be   imagined,  but  can  hardly  be 
described.1 

528.  The  Vallandigham   Case. — In    1863   there   was   not   a 
little  excitement  over  the  case  of  Clement  L.  Vallandigham,  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  who  was  the  most  extreme  of 
Northern  sympathizers  with  the  Confederacy.     For  utterances 
disloyal  to  the  government  he  was  arrested  by  General  Burn- 
side,  and,  after  trial  by  a  military  commission,  was  imprisoned, 
and,  a  little  later,  banished.     He  went  first  within  the  limits 
of  the  Confederacy,  and  then  to  Canada.     By  the  Democracy 
of  his  state  his  arrest  was  regarded  as  arbitrary  and  his  sen 
tence  unlawful,  and  to  show  their  displeasure,  they  nominated 
him  for  governor.     Though  he  was  defeated  by  about  one  hun 
dred  thousand  majority,  the  size  of  the  vote  in  his  favor  was 
a  significant  indication  of  public  feeling.     The  legality  of  his 
arrest  and  banishment  was  tested  by  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  which  decided  that  under  the  Constitution  it  had  no 
power  to  review  the  action  of  a  general  officer  of  the  army. 

529.  Financial  Conditions.  —  It  was   at  this   time  that  the 
enormous  cost  of  the  war  required  the  new  efforts  for  raising 
money  which  have  already  been  described  (§§  456-458).     In 
the  North -industries  flourished  and  the  bills  of  the  govern 
ment  were  promptly  paid  ;   but  in  the  South  a  similar  result 
was  impossible.      The  blockade   prevented   an   income   from 
tariff  and  from  the  sale  of  cotton  (§  455).      The  bonds  payable 

1  There  was  opposition  to  conscription  in   the  South  also,  especially  in 
Georgia. 


§  529]    EMBARRASSMENT   OF   FEDERAL   GOVERNMENT.      421 

"  six  months  after  the  ratification  of  peace  with  the  United 
States  "  sank  in  value  as  the  success  of  the  South  became  more 
and  more  doubtful,  until  finally  they  almost  ceased  to  have  any 
value  whatever.  A  similar  fate  befell  the  Confederate  bank 
notes.  As  these  notes  were  the  only  currency  in  circulation, 
the  prices  of  all  articles  rose  enormously.  In  1864  a  pair  of 
shoes  was  worth  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  in  Con 
federate  currency ;  a  barrel  of  flour,  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  dollars ;  a  pound  of  butter,  fifteen  dollars,  and  a  bushel  of 
potatoes,  twenty-five  dollars.  In  one  instance,  thirty  cords  of 
wood  were  sold  for  thirty  teacupfuls  of  salt.  Prices  in  general 
were  about  fifty  times  as  high  as  they  had  been  when  currency 
was  at  par. 

REFERENCES.  —  Grant,  Memoirs,  Vol.  I.,  437-570  ;  Battles  and  Leaders 
of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  154-255,  493,  638;  Dodge,  View,  93-101,  172- 
183,  241-261  ;  Johnston,  Orations,  Vol.  III.,  82-92  ;  Sherman,  Memoirs, 
Vol.  II.,  638.  The  Histories  of  Rhodes  and  Schouler  are  valuable  on  all 
points.  Writings  of  the  leading  statesmen  and  generals  are  indicated  in 
Channing  and  Hart's  Guide,  §§  32-33.  See  also  De  Leon,  Four  Years 
in  Rebel  Capitals  ;  McCulloch,  Men  and  Measures ;  Greeley,  Recollec 
tions  ;  Cable,  Strange,  True  Stories  of  Louisiana ;  J.  E.  Cooke,  Hilt  to 
Hilt ;  Trowbridge,  Drummer  Boy,  and  Cudjo's  Cave. 


CHAPTER   XXX. 

THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1864. 
GRANT  AND   LEE   IN  VIRGINIA. 

530.  Plan  of  Campaigns.  —  The  spring  of  1864  found  Grant 
as  general  in  chief  of  all  the  Union  armies,  with  Meade  at  the 
head  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  Sherman  at  the  head  of  all 
Federal  troops  in  the  West,  and  General  B.  F.  Butler  in  imme 
diate  command  of  the  Army  of  the  James.     Grant  chose  not  to 
supersede  Meade,  but  decided,  while  keeping  him  in  the  field, 
to  superintend  the  Eastern  campaign  in  person.     The  "  grand 
strategy  "  was  that  all  the  Union  armies  should  advance  on  the 
4th  of  May,  and  that  each  should  keep  its  opponents  so  occu 
pied  that  no  one    Confederate  army  could   reenforce  any  of 
the  others.     The  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  to  move  directly 
toward  Richmond,  attacking  the  enemy  wherever  they  could  be 
found.     Sherman  was  to  push  south  from  Chattanooga  with  a 
similar  purpose,  toward  Atlanta,  while  Butler  was  to  advance 
up  the  James  River  from  Fortress  Monroe  to  Richmond.     In 
this  way,  it  was  hoped  to  finish  the  war  in  the  course  of  the 
summer. 

531.  Advance  of   Grant   toward  Richmond.  —  Grant,   with   a 
force  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  crossed 
the  Rapidan  and  came  upon  Lee  a  little  south  of  Chancellors- 
ville.     The  reports  do  not  reveal  exactly   the   size  of  Lee's 
army,  but  he  probably  had   about   sixty-five  thousand  men. 
The  Confederates  were  strongly  intrenched,  and  a  hotly  con 
tested  battle  raged  for  two  days,  May  5  and  6.     It  is  known  as 
"The  Battle  of  the  Wilderness,"  since    it  was  fought   in  a 

422 


§  531] 


GRANT   AND   LEE   IN   VIRGINIA. 


423 


country  of  tangled  thickets.  In  some  cases,  so  fierce  was  the 
lighting,  small  trees  were  severed  by  bullets.  Lee  could  net- 
be  dislodged  from  his  strong  intrenchments,  and  Grant,  after 
enormous  losses,  moved  with  the  bulk  of  his  force  by  the  left 
flank,  and  thus  forced  the  Confederates  to  leave  their  defenses 
and  fall  back  to  a  new  line.  From  the  8th  to  the  20th  various 
desperate  conflicts  took 
place  about  Spottsyl- 
vania,  with  a  similar 
result.  These  battles 
were  among  the  most 
stubbornly  fought  of 
the  whole  war,  the  con 
flict  at  what  is  known 
as  the  «  Bloody  Angle  " 
being  memorable  as  an 
engagement  at  close 
quarters,  in  which  large 
numbers  were  killed. 
On  the  21st,  Grant, 
undismayed  by  his  fail 
ure  to  break  the  Con 
federate  lines,  again 
moved  by  the  left  flank, 
and  Lee  fell  back  still 
nearer  to  Richmond, 
intrenching  himself 
very  strongly  on  the 
North  Anna  River,  and 
later  at  Cold  Harbor.  Here,  on  June  3,  Grant  made  a  des 
perate  effort  to  crush  the  Confederates  by  assault,  but  Lee's 
lines  could  not  be  broken,  and  the  attempt  was  as  unsuccessful 
as  the  Confederate  assaults  had  been  at  Malvern  Hill  and  at 
Gettysburg.  At  Cold  Harbor,  the  Federal  loss  was  over  ten 
thousand,  while  that  of  the  Confederates  behind  their  intrench 
ments  was  only  about  two  thousand.  The  entire  campaign  is 


MAP  ILLUSTRATING  OPERATIONS  IN  THE  EAST. 


424  THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF   1864.  [§  532 

rendered  memorable  by  the  unfailing  skill  of  Lee's  resistance 
and  his  remarkable  foresight  in  divining  the  movements  of  his 
enemy,  as  well  as  by  the  splendid  energy  of  Grant's  attacks. 

532.  Crossing  the  James.  —  Skillfully  concealing  his  main 
movement  by  continuous  attacks  along  the  front,  Grant  then 
accomplished  the  great  feat  of  swinging  his  entire  army  across- 
the  James,  with  the  purpose  of  approaching  Richmond  from 
the  south.  There,  however,  he  was  confronted  with  strong 
fortifications  about  Petersburg,  a  city  some  twenty  miles  south 
of  Richmond,  on  the  Appomattox  River.  During  McClellan's 
campaign  and  since  that  time,  so  carefully  had  the  entire  coun 
try  been  fortified  under  the  direction  of  Lee  that  Grant  found 
an  immediate  advance  impossible.  The  defenses  in  front  of 
Petersburg  were  at  once  mined  by  the  Federal  forces,  and 
on  the  30th  of  July  four  tons  of  gunpowder  were  exploded 
under  the  most  powerful  of  the  Confederate  works.  Guns  and 
men  were  thrown  high  -into  the  air ;  but,  by  a  gross  blunder, 
the  troops  who  were  to  charge  in  through  the  breach  were  not 
ready,  and  before  the  assault  was  made,  the  pit  was  protected 
by  Confederate  cannon  brought  in  from  a  distance  on  every 
side.  The  Union  forces  lost  many  more  by  this  effort,  known 
as  the  "  Battle  of  the  Crater,"  than  did  the  Confederates.  The 
best  that  Grant  could  do  during  the  rest  of  the  year  was  to 
extend  his  lines  to  the  south  so  far  as  to  cut  the  railroad  from 
the  southeast,  which  furnished  the  Confederates  a  large  part  of 
their  supplies,  and  to  drill  the  new  troops  that  came  pouring  in 
from  the  seemingly  inexhaustible  North.1 


i  The  Union  losses  in  the  Wilderness  were  17,6(56 ;  at  Spottsylania,  18,399 ; 
about  the  North  Anna,  3986;  at  Cold  Harbor,  12,737;  in  Sheridan's  expedi 
tions,  2141.  Total  Union  losses  from  the  Wilderness  to  the  James,  54,929. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  182.  The  Union  armies 
operating  against  Richmond  from  May  24,  1861,  to  May  5,  1864,  lost  143,925 
men  ;  between  May  5, 1864,  and  April  9, 1865, 124,390.  See  Dana,  Recollections 
of  the  Civil  War,  p.  211.  The  Confederate  returns  have  not  been  preserved, 
hence  their  exact  losses  cannot  be  given. 


§  533]  GRANT  AND  LEE  IN  VIRGINIA.  425 

533.  Subordinate  Movements.  —  The  subordinate  movements 
in  the  East  had  rendered  Grant  very  little  assistance.  In  the 
spring  General  Butler1  had  been  sent  up  the  James  River, 
with  an  army  of  thirty-six  thousand  men,  to  attack  Rich 
mond  from  the  south, 
but  the  major  part  of 
his  troops  were  forced 
by  the  Confederates 
into  a  bend  of  the 
river  at  Bermuda 
Hundred,  and  there, 
as  Grant  said,  were 
"bottled  up."  Sigel 
and  Hunter  also  had 
been  sent  into  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  for 
the  purpose  of  taking 
Lynchburg  and  then 
advancing  on  Rich 
mond  from  the  south 
west,  but  they  were 
defeated  by  General 
Early  and  driven  over 
the  mountains  into 
West  Virginia.  Thus 
the  Confederates  secured  command  of  the  entire  Valley  and 
threatened  Washington.  Passing  over  into  Maryland  early  in 


iBorn  in  New  Hampshire,  1818;  died,  1893.  Graduated  at  Waterville 
College  (Colby),  Maine,  1838;  admitted  to  bar,  1840;  became  a  prominent 
Democratic  politician  in  Massachusetts ;  entered  Civil  War  as  brigadier  general 
of  militia;  made  major  general  and  given  command  of  the  Department  of 
Eastern  Virginia;  inaugurated  policy  of  holding  slaves  as  "contraband  of 
war";  cooperated  with  Farragut  in  capture  of  New  Orleans,  1862;  governed 
the  city  until  December,  1862 ;  commanded  Army  of  the  James,  1864 ;  in  Con 
gress,  as  a  Republican,  1866-1879,  except  for  the  years  1875-1877;  was  fre 
quently  a  candidate  for  the  governorship  of  Massachusetts,  and  obtained  it  in 
1882. 


426  THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF    1864.  [§  534 

July,  they  defeated  General  Lew  Wallace  at  Monocacy,  and 
then  pushed  on  until  Early  with  his  force  actually  appeared 
before  the  defenses  north  of  the  capital.  But  finding  these 
more  formidable  than  he  had  anticipated,  he  withdrew  with 
out  making  an  attack.  Late  in  July,  one  of  Early 's  subordi 
nates,  McCausland,  burned  Chamber sburg,  Pennsylvania,  in 
consequence  of  a  refusal  of  the  city  to  pay  a  ransom  of 
five  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  greenbacks.  The  vigor  of 
this  policy  provoked  immediate  retaliation.  In  September 
Grant  sent  Sheridan  against  Early,  and  the  tables  were  soon 
turned.  Early  was  defeated  in  several  engagements  in  Sep 
tember  and  October ;  and  Sheridan,  in  accordance  with  Grant's 
orders,  desolated  the  Valley  of  Virginia  so  completely  that  no 
further  supplies  could  be  furnished  the  Confederate  army  before 
another  summer. 

SHERMAN'S   CAMPAIGNS. 

534.  Sherman's  Advance.  —  In  the  West,  the  movement  of 
Sherman  was  in  some  respects  similar  to  that  of  Grant.  The 
Union  force  gathered  at  Chattanooga  numbered  about  one  hun 
dred  thousand  men,  while  that  of  the  Confederates  numbered 
about  ninety  thousand.1  Sherman's  policy  was  to  attack  John 
ston's  defenses  lightly  in  front,  and  by  extending  his  line  either 
to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  attack  the  latter  in  the  flank  and  oblige 
him  to  come  out  into  open  battle  or  to  retreat-.  Johnston,  though 
constantly  fortified,  instead  of  fighting  vigorously,  as  Lee  was 
doing,  fell  back  without  offering  great  resistance.  This  course 
was  justified  by  the  fact  that  Johnston  knew  that  Sherman's 
army  must  be  fed  by  transportation  over  a  single  line  of  rail 
road,  and  by  the  belief  that  if  Sherman  could  be  drawn  into  the 
South,  so  much  of  the  Union  army  would  be  required  for  guard- 

1  The  Union  army,  May  1,  numbered  98,797 ;  June  1,  it  had  been  reenforced 
to  112,819;  August  1,  it  had  91,675;  September  1,  81,758.  The  Confederate 
army,  April  30,  contained  52,992;  before  June  10,  it  had  been  reenforced  to 
84,328.  These  figures  are  from  the  official  reports  on  file  in  the  War  Depart 
ment.  See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  282-289. 


§536]  SHERMAN'S   CAMPAIGNS. 

ing  trains,  and  such  reinforcements  might  be  secured  by  the 
Confederates  as  they  neared  Atlanta,  that  the  two  armies  might 
ultimately  meet  on  equal  terms.  In  other  words,  it  seemed 
obvious  to  the  Confederate  commander  that  the  farther  south 
Sherman  should  be  drawn,  the  weaker  he  would  be.  The  mis 
take  in  this  strategy  lay  in  underestimating  the  resources  of  the 
North  in  furnishing  new  troops  with  which  to  aid  in  protecting 
the  railroad  and  keeping  up  the  numbers  of  the  Union  force.1 

535.  Removal*  of  Johnston.  —  The  campaign  was  in  a  moun 
tainous  country  just  south  of  Chattanooga,  and  great  skill  was 
shown  by  both  generals.     Johnston  was  rapidly  pushed  back 
until  his  forces  were  near  Atlanta,  and  a  decisive  battle  was  at 
hand.     But  the  people  of  the   South,  not  understanding  the 
merits    of   Johnston's   method   of   conducting   the   campaign, 
became  impatient.     President  Davis,2  who  had  no  partiality 
for  Johnston,  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion,  and, 
accordingly,  just  as  the  Confederates  were  about  to  strike  their 
blow,  Johnston  was    removed,  and   General  John  B.  Hood/3 
who  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  most  energetic 
generals  in  the  Confederate  army,  was  placed  in  command. 

536.  General  Hood's    Methods.  —  Hood's  fighting  qualities, 
however,  in  accordance  with  Sherman's  predictions,  at  once 
took  the  form  of  rashness.     He  seemed  determined  to  fight, 
whether   a  favorable   opportunity   offered   or   not.     In   three 


1  Johnston  was  a  very  able  general,  but,  like  William  III.,  he  was  more  suc 
cessful  in  defense  than  in  offense.    It  is  noteworthy  that  he  and  his  great 
opponent,  Sherman,  were  and  remained  fast  friends. 

2  It  should  be  noted  that  Davis  had  been  trained  at  West  Point,  was  a  sol 
dier  of  ability,  and  interfered  too  much  in  the  management  of  the  Confeder 
ate  armies.    Lincoln  interfered  somewhat,  but,  being  without  military  train 
ing,  fortunately  distrusted  himself  in  this  respect. 

8  Born  in  Kentucky,  1831;  died,  1879.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1853; 
entered  the.Confedei-ate  service  and  soon  commanded  a  Texas  brigade  ;  was 
promoted  for  gallantry  at  Gaines'.s  Mill ;  fought  bravely  in  other  important 
battles;  reenforced  Bragg  at  Chickamauga;  commanded  a  corps  under  John 
ston,  whom  he  superseded;  was  three  times  defeated  by  Sherman,  and  then, 
turning  upon  Thomas,  was  defeated  at  Franklin  and  routed  at  Nashville. 


428 


THE    CAMPAIGNS   OF   1864. 


[§  530 


important  battles  in  July,  on  different  sides  of  Atlanta,1  Hood 
made  desperate  attempts  to  beat  back  the  approaching  forces, 
but  was  unsuccessful.    On  September  2  he  was  obliged  to  evacu 
ate  the  city,  and  early  in  October  he  adopted  the  policy  of  mov 
ing  around  Sherman's  army  and  attacking  the  line  of  supplies. 
This  was  done  in  the  hope  that  Sherman  would  follow ;  but  the 
move  was  exactly  what  Sherman  anticipated  and  desired.   Fol 
lowing  for  a  short  distance, 
he  sent  on  half  of  his  army 
under  General  Thomas,  while 
he  returned  with  the   other 
half     to     Atlanta.       Hood 
pushed  on  vigorously  toward 
Nashville.        At     Franklin, 
south  of  Nashville,  a  battle 
was   fought,    November   30, 
i    between   Hood   and    a  part 
of    Thomas's     army     under 
Schofield,     in     which     the 
Confederates    lost    heavily.2 
Thomas  made  his  stand  at 
Nashville  and   fortified   his 
line   with   great    skill.     Ke- 
maining  long  wholly  on  the 
defensive,     he     was     much 
criticised   for   his   delay   in 
attacking;  but   his  answer   was   that,  while  willing  to  turn 
over   his   command   to  another,  he  would  not  go  out  of   his 
defenses  to  fight  a  decisive  battle  until  he  was  ready.     The 
outcome  justified  his  course.     On  the  15th  of  December  Hood 
advanced  to  the  attack,  and  the  battle  raged  for  two  days ;  but 


GENERAL  J.  B.  HOOD. 


1  Atlanta  was  then  very  unimportant  in  si/.e,  but  it  was  almost  the  only 
manufacturing  town  from  which  the  Confederates  could  obtain  military  sup 
plies  ;  hence  the  significance  of  the  capture. 

2  Hood's  loss  at  Franklin  was  6252,  while  Schofield 's  was  only  232G.     See 
Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  p.  257, 


537] 


SHERMAN'S  CAMPAIGNS. 


429 


when  the  Confederates  had  spent  their  force,  Thomas  ordered 
his  men  forward  and  pushed  on  so  vigorously  that  Hood's  army 
was  completely  broken  up  and  dispersed.1  It  was  the  most 
decisive  Union  victory  of  the  war.  Thus  Hood,  after  losing 
five  battles,  had  now  lost  his  army. 

537.     Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea. — As  soon  as  Hood  was 
clearly  out  of  his  way,  Sherman  began  preparations  for  carry 


ing  out  a  plan  which  had  for  some  time  been  maturing  in  his 
mind.  In  the  spring  a  movement  from  Atlanta  to  Mobile  had 
been  contemplated ;  but  Banks  had  failed  to  advance  upon 
Mobile  from  the  west,  and  the  plan  had  been  abandoned.  Sher 
man  now  obtained  the  consent  of  Grant  to  destroy  the  public 
works  at  Atlanta,  to  break  up  the  railroads  so  as  to  cut  off  Lee's 

1  At  Nashville,  Hood's  losses  were  roughly  estimated  at  15,000,  no  official 
returns  in  detail  being  made.  Thomas's  losses  were  3057.  See  Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III.,  p.  258. 


430  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1864.  [§538 

sources  of  supply,  and  then  to  take  his  army  across  Georgia 
to  the  sea.  This  project  was  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of 
closing  in  upon  Lee  from  the  south  and  in  this  manner 
bringing  the  war  to  an  end.  About  the  middle  of  November, 
Sherman,  having  burned  such  parts  of  Atlanta  as  might  be  use 
ful  to  the  enemy,  cut  all  the  telegraph  wires  extending  to  the 
north,  tore  up  the  railroads  in  every  direction,  and  then  with 
his  army  started  for  the  sea.  He  had  about  sixty  thousand 
men.  These  were  divided  into  four  divisions  and  were  spread 
out  so  that  they  covered  a  territory  about  sixty  miles  in  width. 
To  make  repair  as  difficult  as  possible,  the  railroads  were 
destroyed,  by  heating  and  twisting  the  rails,  and  the  stations 
and  bridges  were  burned. 

538.  Capture    of    Savannah.  —  The    army    reached    the    sea, 
December  13,  after   a  march   of  nearly  four  weeks.     During 
all  this  time  the  people  of  the  North  were  ignorant  of  what 
Sherman  was  doing.     Fort  McAllister,  at  the   mouth  of  the 
Ogeechee  River,  was  stormed  by  Hazen's  division  of  the  Fif 
teenth  Corps,  and  in  a  single  assault  of  a  few  minutes  was 
taken.     Savannah  was  besieged,  and  after  eight  days  the  city 
surrendered,  December  21,  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  guns  and 
twenty-five  thousand  bales  of  cotton.    The  army  then  went  into 
winter  quarters,  where  it  remained' until  February,  1865.    Thus 
Sherman  had  destroyed  the  most  important  Confederate  army 
in  the  West,  had  everywhere  dispersed  opposing  troops,  and 
had  made  transportation  of  supplies  for  Lee  from  the  south 
and  west  so  difficult  as  to  be  practically  impossible. 

NAVAL  VICTORIES. 

539.  Work  along  the  Coast :  Fort  Fisher.  —  In  the  course  of 
the  year  1864,  much  was  done  along  the  coast  to  lessen  the 
number  of  ports  held  by  the  Confederates.     The  most  impor 
tant  of  the  expeditions  were  those  against  Fort  Fisher  in  North 
Carolina,  and  Mobile  in  Alabama.     Fort  Fisher,  which  com 
manded  the   entrance   to  Wilmington   Bay,  had  successfully 


§541]  NAVAL   VICTORIES.  431 

resisted  an  attack  by  General  Butler  and  Admiral  Porter,  but 
now  yielded  to  a  force  under  General  Terry,  sent  by  Grant. 

540.  The  Taking  of  Mobile. — Even  more  important  was  the 
taking  of  Mobile.     The  mouth  of  the  harbor  was  defended  by 
Fort  Gaines  and  Fort  Morgan,  and  the  passage  to  the  city  was 
protected  by  torpedoes  and  mines.     Within  the  harbor  were 
four  powerful  Confederate  gunboats,  including  the  Tennessee, 
commanded  by  Commodore  Buchanan,  the  former  captain  of 
the  Merrimac.     Outside,  Admiral  Farragut  had  a  fleet  of  four 
teen  wooden  vessels  and  four  monitors.      On  the  5th  of  August 
Farragut  determined  to  hazard  a  desperate  attempt  to  run  past 
the  forts.     The  task  was  not  less  difficult  than  the  one  which 
had  confronted  him  at  New  Orleans.     In  order  to  have  a  better 
means  of  observing  and  directing  the  battle,  he  had  himself 
lashed  to  the  topmast  of  the  flagship  Hartford.     The  battle 
that  followed  was  desperate  and  brilliant.     One  of  Farragut's 
vessels  was  blown  up  and  sunk  by  a  torpedo,  but  the  admiral 
pushed  on  past  the  forts  and  engaged  the   Tennessee,  which 
was  obliged  to.  surrender.     The  capitulation  of  the  forts  soon 
followed.     After  the  fall  of  Wilmington  and  Mobile,  the  only 
port  still  held  by  the  Confederates  was  Charleston.     Importa 
tion  of  supplies  by  the  Confederates  was  therefore  rendered 
almost  impossible,  and  many  of  the  Federal  vessels  engaged 
in  preventing  blockade  running  were  released  for  other  services. 

541.  Defeat  of  the  Alabama :  Loss  of  the  Florida  and  Georgia.  — 

In  the  course  of  the  same  year,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Con 
federate  privateers  was  destroyed.  The  Alabama,  which  under 
Captain  Raphael  S.  Semmes  had  taken  many  Union  vessels  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  was  followed  by  the  Kearsarge,  under 
Captain  Winslow,  into  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  in  the  north 
of  France.  The  ships  were  about  equal  in  weight  and  strength. 
Semmes  dared  Winslow  to  a  naval  duel  and  his  challenge 
was  instantly  accepted.  The  fight  occurred  on  June  19,  1864, 
and  was  witnessed  by  thousands  of  people  on  the  banks.  The 
firing  of  the  Alabama  was  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 


432  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1864.  [§  542 

Kearsarge,  but  much  less  accurate.  Within  about  an  hour  after 
the  engagement  began,  the  Alabama  was  found  to  be  in  a 
sinking  condition.  She  struck  her  flag  and  soon  afterward  sank. 
Captain  Semmes  was  taken  from  the  water  by  an  English  yacht 
and  carried  to  England.  Another  famous  Confederate  cruiser, 
the  Florida,  was  accidentally  sunk  near  Fortress  Monroe;  and 
the  Georgia  was  sold  and  became  a  merchant  vessel  under  the 
English  flag.  All  this,  however,  did  not  occur  until  the  com 
merce  of  the  United  States  had  been  practically  destroyed. 

POLITICAL   AFFAIRS. 

542.  Opposition  to  Lincoln's  Policy.  —  The  suspension  of  habeas 
corpus  in  1863,  and  the  arrest  of  Vallandigham  and  many 
others,  excited  great  feeling  among  the  opponents  of  President 
Lincoln  (§§  512,  528).  He  was  boldly  accused  of  exceeding  his 
constitutional  rights,  and  many  newspapers  carried  on  a  vigor 
ous  battle  against  him.  The  history  of  public  sentiment  was 
still  more  striking  in  1864.  Early  in  the  year  many  of  the 
leading  Republicans,  especially  those  of  the  more  radical  type, 
thought  it  would  not  do  to  renominate  Lincoln:  There  was  a 
widespread  outcry  for  peace,  and  the  impression  became  gen 
eral  that  peace  would  be  possible  if  the  government  would 
abandon  its  policy  of  emancipation.  Grant's  Virginia  campaign 
had  resulted  in  great  slaughter  and  had  brought  sorrow  into 
thousands  of  households,  without  bringing  him  any  nearer  to 
Richmond  than  McClellaii  had  been  two  years  before.  Greeley 
and  other  prominent  Republicans  desired  a  change  of  policy; 
but  notwithstanding  all  warnings,  Lincoln  kept  steadily  on  his 
course,  although  at  one  time  he  recognized  the  probability  of 
his  defeat  for  the  Presidency.1 

1  August  23,  Lincoln  wrote  this  memorandum,  which,  though  unsigned, 
was  found  in  his  handwriting  after  his  death:  "This  morning,  as  for  some 
time  past,  it  seems  exceedingly  probable  that  this  administration  will  not  be 
reflected.  Then  it  will  be  my  duty  to  so  cooperate  with  the  President-elect 
as  to  save  the  Union  between  the  election  and  the  inauguration,  as  he  will 
have  secured  his  election  on  such  grounds  that  he  cannot  possibly  save  it 
afterward." 


§  545]  POLITICAL  AFFAIRS.  433 

543.  Effects  of  Victory.  —  But  these  dark  hours  were  soon 
followed  by  light.      First  came  Farragut's  exploit  in  taking 
Mobile ;  and  then,  on  the  3d  of  September,  followed  the  stir 
ring   news    that    Sherman    had   taken    Atlanta.      The    effect 
was  like  magic.     Seward,  in  a  speech,   September   14,  said, 
"  Farragut  and  Sherman  have  knocked  the  bottom  out  of  the 
Chicago  [Democratic]  nominations."     Then,  as  a  crowning  and 
thrilling  inspiration,  came  the  descriptions  of  Sheridan's  ride 
(§  533)  and  the  complete  routing  of  Early  at  Fisher's  Hill.     A 
veritable  wave  of  enthusiasm  took  possession  of  the  North. 
Lincoln  was  unanimously  renominated,  with  Andrew  Johnson 
of  Tennessee  for  Vice  President ;  and  the  election  gave  them 
two  hundred   and   twelve  votes,  as  against  twenty-one  given 
McClellan,  the  Democratic  candidate.1 

544.  Results  of  the  Election.  —  The  result  of  this  election 
and  the  Federal  victories  put  new  vigor  into  the  Union  cause. 
Recruiting  went  on  rapidly,  so 'that  the  government  in  the 
spring  of  1865  had  more  than  a  million  men  under  arms.     The 
Confederacy  had  no  such  reserve  power.     It  had  now  lost  much 
more  than  half  of  its  territory ;  its  sources  of  supplies  were  cut 
off,  and  its  armies  were  confronted  from  the  south,  as  well  as 
from  the  north,  by  overwhelming  forces. 

545.  Changes  in  the  Cabinet.  —  Lincoln's  first  Cabinet  con 
tained  not  only  his  rivals  for  the*  Republican  nomination  in 
1860,  but  also  a  number  of  representative  "  War   Democrats." 
When  Stanton,  who   had  always  been  a  Democrat,  took  the 
place  of   Cameron  (§  475),  it  was  noticed   that   the  Cabinet 
contained  four  Democrats  and  only  three  Republicans.     When 
reminded  of  this  fact,  Lincoln  intimated  that  he  counted  for 
something  himself,  and  could  perhaps  manage  to  prevent  the 
administration  from  becoming  Democratic.     As  time  went  on, 
there  were  many  complaints  in  regard  to  the  supposed  lack 

1  As  a  campaign  document,  Buchanan  Read's  spirited  poem,  Sheridan's 
Ride,  written  on  the  impulse  of  the  moment,  was  of  importance,  as  it  made 
the  nation  ring  with  the  praises  of  Sheridan's  great  exploit. 


434  THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1804.  [§  546 

of  harmony  in  the  Cabinet ;  and  the  Presidential  nominating 
convention  of  1864  requested  the  President  to  make  the  body 
more  homogeneous.  This  resolution  was  aimed  especially  at 
Montgomery  Blair  of  Maryland,  who  was  Postmaster-General, 
and  Edward  Bates  of  Missouri,  the  Attorney-General.  They 
soon  resigned  and  were  succeeded  respectively  by  William 
Dennison  of  Ohio,  who  had  been  president  of  the  nominat 
ing  convention,  and  James  Speed,  a  prominent  lawyer  from 
Kentucky.  Salmon  P.  Chase,  who  had  often  been  much  out 
of  harmony  with  the  President,  resigned  the  Secretaryship  of 
the  Treasury,  and  was  succeeded  by  William  P.  Fessenden  of 
Maine.  When  Chief  Justice  Taney,  after  long  and  important 
service,  died,  on  the  12th  of  October,  there  was  much  anxiety 
in  regard  to  the  appointment  to  the  position  thus  made  vacant 
—  the  most  important  in  the  gift  of  the  President.  Among 
others,  Chase  was  a  very  prominent  candidate,  strongly  urged 
by  radical  Eepublicans.  The  President  gave  no  sign  of  his 
intentions  until  December  6,  when,  without  having  consulted 
any  one,  he  sent  to  the  Senate,  in  his  own  handwriting,  the 
nomination  of  Chase  to  be  Chief  Justice.  The  nomination  was 
immediately  confirmed  without  reference  to  a  committee. 
The  changes  in  the  Cabinet  and  the  appointment  of  Chase 
gave  great  satisfaction. 

546.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment.  —  The  last  important  work 
of  Congress  in  1864  was  the  passage  of  a  joint  resolution  to 
submit  to  the  states  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Consti 
tution,  which  should  forever  prohibit  slavery  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  Proclamation  of  Emancipation  afforded 
no  certainty  that  after  the  seceding  states  had  been  brought 
back  into  the  Union,  they  might  not  legally  reestablish 
slavery.  This  could  be  prevented  only  by  a  Constitutional 
Amendment.  Such  an  Amendment  had  been  offered  in  April, 
and  had  passed  the  Senate,  but  had  failed  in  the  House  to 
s*ecure  the  required  two-thirds  vote.  Now,  however,  it  was 
recalled,  and  after  a  long  and  memorable  debate  was  duly  passed 


§  546]  POLITICAL   AFFAIRS.  435 

in  the  required  manner  (January  31, 1865),  amid  great  enthusi 
asm  on  the  part  of  Representatives  and  auditors.  The  Amend 
ment,  however,  before  it  could  be  operative,  had  to  receive  the 
approval  of  three-fourths  of  the  states.  The  President  saw 
that  it  would  probably  fail  by  one  vote,  and,  in  order  to  secure 
that  vote,  he  procured  the  admission  of  the  territory  of  Nevada 
as  a  state.1 


REFERENCES.  —  Grant's  Memoirs,  Vol.  II.,  177-343,  contains  the 
leader's  account  of  the  entire  Virginia  campaign  of  1864;  from  344- 
386,  Grant  comments  on  Sherman's  campaign.  Sherman's  Memoirs 
must  be  consulted  for  the  campaign  between  Chattanooga  and  the  sea. 
Rhodes' s  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  IV.,  chap,  xxiii.,  gives  an 
admirable  account  of  the  political  situation.  See  also  various  biographies 
of  Lee,  especially  those  by  General  A.  L.  Long  and  General  Fitzhugh 
Lee,  as  well  as  the  Southern  Historical  Society  Papers  and  General 
Joseph  E.  Johnston's  Narrative  of  Military  Operations.  Individual  bat 
tles  are  described  with  great  particularity  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War,  in  Dodge's  View,  in  Old  South  Leaflets,  Vol.  III.,  No.  5,  and 
in  Longstreet's  Memoirs  of  the  Civil  War  in  America.  See  also,  for  an 
account  of  the  battle  of  Mobile,  Maclay's  History  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  Vol.  II.,  553-573.  For  Lincoln's  reelection,  see  Stan  wood's  Elec 
tions,  236-252.  See  also  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  III., 
97,  Vol.  IV.,  247-663  ;  Old  South  Leaflets,  Vol.  III.,  No.  5  ;  Dodge's  View, 
270-292,  302-309;  J.  C.  Schwab,  The  Confederate  States  of  America 
(1901). 

1  The  circumstances  attending  this  singular  action  are  given  by  Charles  A. 
Dana  in  his  Recollections  of  the  Civil  War,  pp.  175-178.  The  ratification  of 
the  Thirteenth  Amendment  was  announced  by  Secretary  Seward  on  Decem 
ber  18,  1865.  Eleven  former  slaveholding  states  joined  sixteen  free  states  to 
make  the  twenty-seven  states  necessary  to  ratification. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

END  OF  THE  WAR,  1865. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  SHERMAN  AND  GRANT. 

547.  Efforts  to  Secure   Peace  by  Negotiation.  —  Throughout 
the  year  1864  there  had  been  attempts  in  the  North,  as  well 
as  in  the  South,  to  bring  about  negotiations  for  peace.     These 
attempts  culminated  in  February,  1865,  when  President  Lincoln 
and  Secretary  Seward  met  Alexander  H.  Stephens1  and  two 
companions,  on  a  steamer  in  Hampton  Roads,  for  an  amicable 
discussion  of  the  situation.     Lincoln  refused  to  negotiate  ex 
cept  on  the  basis  of  a  disbanding  of  the  Confederate  forces  and 
a  restoration  of  the  national  authority.     Stephens  attempted 
to  convince  Lincoln  that  he  would  be  justified  in  treating  with 
"  rebels,"  and  referred  to  the  case  of  Charles  I.  in  England. 
Lincoln  replied  that  he  was  not  strong  in  history  but  relied 
upon  Seward  for  all  such  knowledge;  what  he  specially  re 
membered  of  that  contest  was  that  "  Charles  I.  lost  his  head." 
The  negotiations  came  to  nothing. 

548.  Sherman's  Advance.  — There  was  enough  activity  of  the 
Federal  troops  in  the  Southwest  during  the  'early  spring  of 
1865  to  prevent  any  important  movements  of  the  Confederates 
to  reenforce  Lee,  and  accordingly  interest  was  concentrated  in 
the  campaigns  of  Sherman  and  Grant.     Sherman  broke  camp 
in  Savannah,  February  1,  and  at  once  moved  northward.     In 
the  course  of  his  march,  Sherman  passed  through  Columbia, 

1  Vice  President  Stephens  had  not  been  in  favor  of  the  war,  and  had  been 
more  or  less  opposed  to  the  administrative  methods  of  President  Davis,  who, 
although  he  had  a  Cabinet  and  a  Congress,  became  through  force  of  circum 
stances  virtually  a  dictator. 

436 


§  549]          MOVEMENTS   OF   SHERMAN   AND   GRANT.  437 

South  Carolina,  and  while  the  army  was  there  the  city  was 
burned.  Each  side  has  accused  the  other  of  the  act ;  but  the 
facts  have  never  been  determined  beyond  dispute.1  In  order 
to  strengthen  the  army  under  Johnston,  whom  Davis  had  felt 
obliged  to  reinstate,  the  Confederates  evacuated  Charleston,  thus 
giving  their  last  port  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals.  Johnston 
had  collected  about  thirty  thousand  men,  but  he  did  not  venture 
an  engagement  until  Sherman  had  advanced  nearly  as  far  north 
as  Goldsboro.  The  winter  rains  had  not  subsided,  and  Sher 
man's  forces  encountered  very  great  difficulties.  Near  Golds 
boro,  March  16,  and  again  March  19,  Johnston  attacked  with 
vigor,  but  the  Confederates  were  driven  back,  and  Sherman 
entered  the  town,  March  23.  Here  he  received  reinforcements 
from  Wilmington.  Johnston  was  now  in  no  condition  to  meet 
the  augmented  Union  army,  and  Sherman  seems  to  have  wished 
not  to  push  his  advantage  until  he  knew  the  results  of  the  move 
ments  about  Richmond. 

549.  Cavalry  Movements  of  Wilson  and  Stoneman.  —  While 
Sherman  was  advancing  in  North  Carolina,  two  cavalry  expedi 
tions  were  ordered  by  Grant  to  set  out  from  Thomas's  army  in 
Nashville,  —  one  for  Alabama,  under  General  J.  H.  Wilson,  and 
one  under  General  Stoneman  for  East  Tennessee  and  Virginia. 
The  purpose  of  these  expeditions  was  not  only  to  clear  the 
regions  visited  of  Confederate  stores  and  troops,  but  also  to 
prevent  Lee  and  Davis  from  escaping  toward  the  west  or 
south.  Stoneman,  having  rapidly  completed  his  work  in  East 
Tennessee,  destroyed  the  important  depot  of  Confederate  sup 
plies  at  Lynchburg,  late  in  March,  and  on  the  9th  of  April 
captured  and  destroyed  the  large  military  magazines  at  Salis 
bury,  North  Carolina.  Wilson  devastated  much  of  Alabama ; 
and  on  the  2d  of  April  met  and  dispersed  Forrest's  last  avail 
able  force  near  Selma,  where  he  completely  destroyed  a  great 

1  The  latest,  fullest,  and  fairest  discussion  of  the  matter  is  given  by  J.  F. 
Rhodes  in  The  American  Historical  Review  for  April,  1902.  Much  of  the 
lamentable  suffering  seems  chargeable  rather  to  drunken  soldiers  and  camp 
followers  than  to  the  orders  of  commanders. 


438 


END   OF   THE   WAR,   1865. 


[§550 


arsenal  of  arms  and  stores.     The  dwindling  Confederate  force 
in  Richmond  was  now  confronted  in  four  directions. 

550.  Grant's  Advance.  —  Grant  began  his  campaign  by  a 
further  movement  south  of  Petersburg,  January  31,  when  he 

took  possession  of 
Hatcher's  Run.  While 
attracting  the  atten 
tion  of  Lee  at  this 
point,  he  sent  Sheri 
dan,1  with  an  army  of 
ten  thousand  picked 
cavalry,  up  the  Shen- 
andoah  Valley,  for  the 
purpose  of  cutting  the 
Lynchburg  and  Rich 
mond  railroad,  by 
which  Lee  was  receiv 
ing  the  larger  part  of 
his  supplies.  Sheri 
dan  scattered  the 
forces  of  Early  and 
was  completely  suc 
cessful.  Returning  by 
way  of  Charlottes- 
ville,  Sheridan  rejoined  Grant,  March  29,  and  was  at  once  put 
in  command  of  the  extreme  left  of  the  Union  army,  with  orders 
to  push  on  around  the  Confederate  left,  to  Five  Forks.  This 
movement  obliged  Lee  to  extend  his  line  to  that  point,  but, 

iBorn  in  New  York,  1831;  died,  1888.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1853; 
received  a  cavalry  command  in  1862;  distinguished  himself  at  Perryville  and 
Stone  River ;  fought  with  great  gallantry  at  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga ; 
was  given  command  of  a  cavalry  corps  by  Grant  in  1864;  defeated  Early  at 
Winchester  and  Fisher's  Hill,  and,  October  19,  1864,  performed  one  of  the 
notable  feats  of  the  war  by  riding  from  "  Winchester  twenty  miles  away  "  and 
turning  defeat  into  victory  at  Cedar  Creek;  took  a  leading  part  in  the  final 
attack  on  Lee's  army  in  April,  1865;  was  made  lieutenant  general  in  1869; 
succeeded  Sherman  as  general  in  chief,  1883;  general  in  1888. 


GENERAL  PHILIP  H.  SHERIDAN. 


§  551] 


MOVEMENTS  OF  SHERMAN  AND  GRANT 


439 


as  he  now  had  only  about  fifty  thousand  men  with  whom  to 
contend  against  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  com 
manded  by  Grant,  it  was  impossible  to  protect  Richmond  in 
the  north  and  to  guard  his  communications  at  the  south.  The 
Confederate  lines  were  so  long  that  Lee  hardly  had  one  thou 
sand  men  to  a  mile.  He  therefore,  after  his  lines  had  been 
broken  at  Five  Forks,  April  1,  decided  to  abandon  the  city. 

551.   Surrenders  of  Lee  and  Johnston.  —  With  the  attack  oi 

Sheridan  on  the  extreme  left,  Grant  ordered  an  assault,  April  2, 

all  along  the  line.     Lee 

found    that    the    only 

way  to  save  his  army 

was  not  only  to  aban 
don  Richmond,  but  to 

withdraw  rapidly  to  the 

west.     He  had  wished 

to  abandon  the  capital 

before,  but  had  deferred 

to  the  wishes  of  Davis. 

On     the     morning     of 

April     3,    the     Union 

troops  entered  Richmond  without  opposition.  Lee  and  his 

army  turned  westward,  but 
the  advance  of  Sheridan 
was  so  rapid  that  escape 
was  impossible.  Great 
blunders  were  committed 
by  the  Confederate  com 
missariat,  and  Lee's  forces 
were  almost  without  food. 
At  Appomattox  Court 
house,  further  retreat  was 

cut   off,   and    on   the    9th 

HOUSE  AT  APPOMATTOX  IN  WHICH  LEE       P     .       .,    T  ,        , 

AND    GRANT    ARRANGED    THE    SUR-    of   APnl    Lee  surrendered 
RENDER.  his  army  to  Grant   at   an 


SIGNATURES  TO  THE  AGREEMENT  FOR  THE 
SURRENDER. 


440  END   OF   THE   WAR,    1865.  [§  552 

interview  between  the  two  commanders  which  brought  out 
the  best  qualities  of  each.  Lee's  troops  were  required  only 
to  bear  no  more  arms  against  the  United  States ;  and  they  were 
allowed  to  retain  their  horses  for  spring  plowing.  Never  before 
at  the  end  of  a  great  war  had  such  magnanimous  terms  been 
given.  On  the  retreat  from  Richmond,  many  men  had  thrown 
away  their  arms  and  taken  to  the  woods,  so  that  the  number 
finally  surrendered  was  only  twenty-eight  thousand,  three 
hundred  and  fifty-six.  After  a  sharp  dispute  between  Sher 
man  and  Stan  ton,  as  to  the  conditions  that  should  be  granted, 
Johnston  capitulated  to  Sherman,  on  similar  terms,  April  26. 
All  the  other  Confederate  armies  surrendered  before  the  end 
of  May. 

THE    DEATH   OF   PRESIDENT   LINCOLN. 

552.  Assassination  of  Lincoln.  —  While  the  people  of  the 
North  were  everywhere  rejoicing  over  the  termination  of 
the  war,  they  were  suddenly  cast  into  the  deepest  grief  by 
an  event  of  the  utmost  horror.  A  conspiracy  to  assassinate 
the  President  was  successful.  On  the  evening  of  April  14, 
President  Lincoln  was  sitting  in  a  private  box  at  one  end  of 
the  stage  in  Ford's  theater.  Between  two  of  the  acts,  John 
Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  stole  into  the  box  and,  from  the  rear, 
shot  the  President  through  the  head.  Then  leaping  out  from 
the  front  of  the  box  upon  the  stage  in  full  view  of  the  audience, 
he  shouted,  "Sic  semper  tyrannis"  ("Ever  thus  to  ty  rants,"  - 
the  motto  of  Virginia),  and  passing  through  a  rear  door  of  the 
stage,  escaped.  In  the  midst  of  the  excitement  that  ensued,  the 
President  was  tenderly  carried  to  a  neighboring  house,  where 
he  received  every  possible  surgical  aid,  but  no  effort  could  save 
his  life.  He  expired  the  next  morning.  Booth  in  his  leap  to 
the  stage  injured  one  of  his  legs,  but  he  succeeded  in  mounting 
a  horse  that  was  in  waiting,  and  crossed  one  of  the  bridges  into 
Virginia.  For  several  days  he  evaded  his  pursuers;  but  the 
whole  region  was  in  arms,  and  he  was  finally  brought  to  bay. 
Refusing  to  give  himself  up,  he  was  shot  by  a  Union  soldier 


§  555]  THE   MAGNITUDE   OF   THE    WAR.  441 

On  the  evening  that  Lincoln  was  shot,  one  of  the  other  con 
spirators  entered  the  house  of  Secretary  Seward  and  attacked 
him  in  bed  with  a  huge  bowie-knife.  Though  desperately 
wounded,  Seward  finally  recovered.  Of  the  conspirators  ar 
rested,  four  were  hanged  and  four  imprisoned.  It  is  still  a 
question  whether,  in  the  prevalent  excitement,  injustice  was 
not  done  in  some  of  these  executions. 

553.  Funeral  of  Lincoln.  —  The  grief  of  the  people  was  un 
precedented.      The  greatness  of  Lincoln's  life  and  the  pathos 
of  his  death  touched  every  heart.     His  body  was  taken  for 
interment  to  Springfield,  Illinois;    and  so  universal  was  the 
love  and  sorrow,  that  the  people   insisted  upon  making  the 
movement  a  national  event.     At  New  York  and  other  impor 
tant  points  along  the  route,  his    body  lay  in  state  and  was 
viewed  by  millions  of  people.     Three  weeks  were  required  for 
the  funeral  train  to  reach  Springfield. 

554.  Lincoln's  Policy  toward  the  South.  — The  people  of  the 
South  showed  something  of  the  grief  of  the  North,  for  many 
had  already  begun  to  see  that  in  war  Lincoln  had  not  been  a 
harsh  enemy,  and  that  in  peace  he  was  likely  to  be  a  real  friend. 
They  very  naturally  felt  that  the  murder  of  the  President  would 
probably  make  the  people  of  the  North  harsher  toward  the 
South,  now  that  the  victory  had  been  secured.     They  did  not  at 

'that  time  know  what  has  since  been  revealed  of  Lincoln's  gener 
ous  feeling  toward  them.  At  a  Cabinet  meeting  on  the  very  day 
of  his  assassination  he  had  discussed  the  reconstruction  of  the 
South.  "  Enough  lives  have  been  sacrificed,"  he  said ;  "  we 
must  extinguish  our  resentment,  if  we  expect  harmony  and 

union." 

THE   MAGNITUDE   OF   THE   WAR. 

555.  The  Army  and  the  Navy.  —  The  Union  army  had  grown 
steadily  in  numbers,  until  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  lists  showed 
an  enrollment  of  1,000,516  men,  of  whom  more  than  six  hundred 
thousand  were  fit  for  active  service.1     The  Union  navy  had 

1  In  the  course  of  the  war,  as  many  as  2,690,401  men  entered  the  Union 
army,  and  probably  about  one-half  as  many  were  enrolled  by  the  Confederacy. 


442  END   OF   THE    WAR,    1865.  [§  556 

grown  until  it  consisted  of  about  seven  hundred  vessels,  of 
which  sixty  were  ironclads.  It  was  at  that  time  the  most 
powerful  navy  in  the  world. 

556.  Extent  of  the  Losses.  —  The  Union  forces  had  44,236 
killed  in  battle,  while  49,205  died  from  wounds.     Those  who 
died  of  disease  numbered  186,216.     In  prison  and  from  acci 
dents  and  unknown  causes,  the  deaths  were  50,352,  making  a 
sum   total  of  330,009.      There  were   buried  in  the  national 
cemeteries  the  bodies  of  318,870,  but  a  considerable  number 
of  these  were  Confederate  soldiers.     The  number  of  deaths  in 
the  Confederate  service  was  less,  but  figures  have  not  been  so 
carefully  preserved,  and  the  exact  truth  can,  probably,  never 
be  known.     The  number  of  actions  in  the  course  of  the  war  of 
sufficient  importance  to  receive  names  was  no  less  than  twenty- 
four  hundred. 

557.  The  Cost  of  the  War.  —  The  cost  of  the  war  was  enor 
mous  ;  but  it  cannot  be  accurately  told.     In  addition  to  about 
$780,000,000  that  had  been  paid  by  taxation,  while  the  contest 
was  going  on,  the  national  debt  had,  from  $65,000,000,  in  June, 
1861,  grown  in  1865  to  be  $2,850,000>000.     If  to  this  vast  sum 
we  add  the  debts  of  states  and  cities,  and  the  pensions  that 
were  paid  before  1900,  the  total  cost  of  the  war  to  the  country, 
exclusive  of  expenditures  by  the  Confederates,  can  hardly  have 
been  less  than  ten  billions  of  dollars. 

558.  Suffering.  —  In  the  South  the  suffering  in  consequence 
of  the  war  was  vastly  greater  than  in  the  North.     The  freeing 
of  four  million  slaves  completely  changed  the  organization  of 
society.     Wherever  the  Northern  armies  had  gone,  there  had 
been  great  destruction  of  property  and  thousands  of  homes 
had  been  ruined.     Throughout  the  later  years  of  the  war  there 
had  been  much  suffering  of  individual  families,  and  the  sources 
of  income  of  many  that  had  previously  known  independence  or 
affluence,  had  been  entirely  taken  away.     When  emancipation 
took  place,  the  suffering  was  somewhat  increased,  although, 


§  560]  THE   MAGNITUDE   OF  THE   WAR.  443 

as  a  rule,  the  negroes   showed   remarkable   fidelity  to   their 
owners. 

559.  Final  Review.  — On   the   23d  and   24th  of  May  such 
parts  of  the  Armies  of  the  East  and  of  the  West  as  were  within 
reach,  had  the  privilege   of    passing  in  review  before  their 
commanders  and  the  representatives  of  the  nation.     For  two 
whole  days  the  armies  filled  the  long  stretch  of  Pennsylvania 
Avenue  from  the  Capitol  to  Georgetown,  and,  in  a  compact 
mass,   from    curbstone    to   curbstone,  passed   in  front  of  the 
reviewing  stand  at  the  White  House.     The  spectacle  was  the 
mightiest  the  continent  had  ever  seen;  but  it  was  much  more 
than  a  spectacle.      It  was  a  vast  army  of  citizens  peaceably 
going  home  after  the  most  bloody  and  terrible  of  modern  wars. 
Of  the  more  than  a  million  Union  soldiers  under  arms  in  the 
spring  of  1865,  before  the  next  winter  all  but  about  fifty  thou 
sand  had  been  quietly  mustered  out  and  become,  in  the  main, 
orderly  and  industrious  citizens. 

560.  The  Military  Lessons  of  the  'VT        —  As  time  has  passed, 
students  have   learned   that    the    military  lessons  taught    by 
the   war   were  numerous  and  important.      Four  of  them  are 
especially  worthy  of  note. 

(1)  The  battle  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  con 
vinced  every  one  that  wooden  vessels  could  no  longer  be  of 
any  service  against  ships  of  iron.     In  less  than  a  generation, 
every  navy  of  importance  in  the  world  was  made  up  exclusively 
of  iron  ships. 

(2)  The  habit  of  instantly  throwing  up  protecting  intrench- 
ments,  whenever  either  army  came  to  a  halt  near  the  other, 
completely  revolutionized  military  field  practice. 

(3)  More  important  still  was  the  lesson  that  military  training 
of  officers  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  any  nation.    The  success 
ful  commanders  of  the  war  in  the  North,  as  well  as  in  the  South, 
were,  almost  without  exception,  officers  who  had  been  trained 
in  the  military  schools.     In  the  early  part  of  the  contest,  espe 
cially  in  the  North,  men  with  political  influence  were  often 


444  END  OF  THE   WAR,   1865.  [§  561 

put  into  responsible  positions;  but  such  appointments  gen 
erally  proved  disastrous,  and  the  authorities  had  to  fill  their 
places  with  men  who  had  received  a  careful  military  training. 
(4)  But  the  greatest  lesson  of  all  was  taught  by  the  rapidity 
with  which  a  great  army  could  be  put  into  the  field  in  an  emer 
gency,  and  then  quietly  disbanded.  Stanton,  in  his  report  as 
Secretary  of  War  in  1865,  called  attention  to  several  remark 
able  facts  in  this  connection.  After  the  disaster  in  the  Penin 
sula  more  than  eighty  thousand  troops  were  enlisted,  organized, 
equipped,  and  sent  into  the  field  in  less  than  thirty  days.  Sixty 
thousand  new  troops  repeatedly  went  into  the  field  within  four 
weeks ;  and  from  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin 
ninety  thousand  men  were  raised  and  sent  into  the  armies  within 
twenty  days.1  These  facts  showed  that  a  large  standing  army 
is  unnecessary  in  a  self-governing  nation. 

561.  The  French  in  Mexico. — The  immense  military  power 
and  prestige  of  the  United  States  were  soon  illustrated  in  a 
striking  manner.  Throughout  the  war  the  imperial  govern 
ment  of  France,  under  Napoleon  III.,  was  in  active  sympathy 
with  the  effort  to  destroy  the  Union.  When  Napoleon  III. 
found  that  Great  Britain  would  not,  as  he  desired,  acknowl 
edge  the  independence  of  the  Confederacy,  he  turned  his 
attention  in  another  direction,  and  stirred  up  a  revolution  in 
Mexico,  which  overthrew  the  Eepublican  form  of  government 
and  established  an  empire  under  Maximilian,  an  Archduke  of 
Austria.  While  the  United  States  government  was  at  war,  it 
was  in  no  condition  to  do  more  than  to  issue  a  formal  protest ; 
but  when  the  war  was  over,  and  there  were  a  million  men 
available,  France  perceived  the  advisability  of  withdrawing 
her  troops  from  Mexico  at  the  suggestion  of  the  United  States. 
With  a  courage  worthy  of  a  better  cause,  Maximilian  refused 
to  withdraw  with  them.  The  Mexicans  soon  revolted,  and  in 
1867,  the  emperor  was  taken  prisoner  and  shot.  The  United 

i  Congressional  Globe,  Appendix  1865-1866,  pp.  10-11. 


REFERENCES.  445 

States  government  entreated  for  his  life,  but  the  request  was 
formally  refused.  

REFERENCES.  —  The  end  of  the  war  is  described  from  both  points  of 
view  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  708,  and  in  a 
briefer  manner  in  Dodge's  View,  pp.  310-319.  For  Lincoln's  attitude  in 
regard  to  all  questions,  see  Tarbell's  Lincoln,  Vol.  II. ,  and  Nicolay  and 
Hay,  Vols.  IX.-X.  The  works  already  named  may  all  be  consulted  with 
profit  in  regard  to  this  period.  For  the  Confederate  side,  see,  especially, 
Davis,  Eise  and  Fall;  Stephens,  War  between  the  States;  Johnston, 
Narrative;  and  Longstreet,  Memoirs  of  the  Civil  War  in  America.  See 
also  Thomas  Nelson  Page's  stories,  and  especially  his  short  story,  Burying 
of  the  Guns,  for  graphic  and  instructive  pictures  of  war-time. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    JOHNSON  :    RECONSTRUC 
TION,  1865-1869. 

DIFFERENT  POLICIES  OF   RECONSTRUCTION. 

562.  President  Johnson.  —  Andrew   Johnson,1    a    Democrat 
from  Tennessee,  was  the  only  Southern  senator  who  refused  to 
resign  his  place  when,  in  1861,  the  other  senators  withdrew 
from  Congress.     Partly  because  he  was  such  a  stanch  Unionist, 
and  partly  because  the  Eepublicans  desired  to  develop  a  Union 
sentiment  in  the  South,  he  was  elected  as  Vice  President  on 
the  ticket  with  Lincoln,  in  1864,  and  in  consequence  became 
President  on  the  death  of  the  latter. 

563.  Lincoln's  Reconstruction  Policy. — Lincoln,  with  his  cus 
tomary  foresight,  some  time  before  the  end  of  the  war,  had  set 
forth  his  ideas  on  the  policy  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
states.     He  expressed  the  opinion,  in  an  address,  that  the  ques 
tion  whether  the  "seceded  states,'7  so  called,  were  in  the  Union  or 
out  of  it,  was  "  a  mere  pernicious  abstraction  " ;  that  "  they  were 
out  of  their  proper  practical  relation  with  the  Union,"  and  that 
"  the  sole  object  of  those  in  authority  should  be  again  to  get  them 

1  Born  in  North  Carolina,  1808;  died,  1875.  Settled  in  Tennessee;  a  tailor 
by  trade;  became  a  member  of  Congress,  1843-1853;  governor  of  Tennessee, 
1853-1857 ;  United  States  senator,  1857-1862 ;  was  a  strong  Unionist,  and  was 
appointed  by  Lincoln  military  governor  of  Tennessee;  though  a  Democrat, 
was  nominated  for  Vice  President  with  Lincoln  in  1864,  and  elected ;  became 
President  on  the  death  of  Lincoln,  in  1865;  continued  to  hold  many  Demo 
cratic  principles  and  soon  was  opposed  to  the  Republican  Congress ;  vetoed 
many  acts  of  Congress ;  was  impeached  in  1867,  but  the  impeachment  failed 
by  one  less  than  a  two-thirds  majority ;  returned  to  Tennessee  and  was  de 
feated  for  the  Senate  and  the  House,  but  finally  elected  to  the  Senate  shortly 
before  his  death. 

446 


§  564]      DIFFERENT  POLICIES   OF   RECONSTRUCTION.         447 


into  that  proper  practical  relation."  With  the  exception  of 
certain  classes,  he  had  previously  by  proclamation  offered 
pardon  to  all  persons  who  should  take  the  oath  to  support 
the  Constitution  and  the  laws,  and  he  had  promised  that 
as  soon  as  one-tenth  of  the  voters  in  any  state  (according  to 
the  registration  of  1860)  should  take  this  oath  and  establish 
a  government  of  republican  form,  the  Federal  authorities 
would  recognize  it  as  a  legal  state  government.  Arkan 
sas  and  Louisiana  ^^ 
had  been  reorgan 
ized  on  this  basis, 
though  the  reor 
ganization  proved, 
in  the  end,  unsuc 
cessful,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  Con 
gress  refused  to 
recognize  the  gov 
ernments  thus  set 
up. 

564.  Johnson's 
Policy  of  Recon 
struction.  —  The 

accession  of  John 
son  somewhat 
modified  this  pol 
icy,  and  this  modi 
fication  has  gen 
erally  been  regarded  as  calamitous  to  the  South.  But  it 
should  be  said  that  Johnson's  policy  was  not  so  different 
in  essentials  from  that  of  Lincoln  as  it  was  in  method  and 
spirit.  Johnson  was  utterly  lacking  in  the  tact  that  is  always 
requisite  to  the  successful  leadership  of  men,  and  consequently 
he  was  soon  at  odds  with  Congress.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  Congress  fell  under  the  influence  of  its  radical  mem- 


ANDREW  JOHNSON. 


448      THE   ADMINISTRATION  OF  JOHNSON,    1865-1869.      [§  565 

bers,  especially  Charles  Sumner  and  Thaddeus  Stevens,  and 
became  more  extreme  in  its  methods  as  soon  as  the  staying 
and  guiding  hand  of  Lincoln  was  removed. 

565.  Difficult  Questions.  —  Though  the   war  was   virtually 
over  when  Johnson  came  into  authority  as  President,  he  found 
many  difficult  questions  to  consider  and  decide.     One  of  the 
first  was  to  determine  what  should  be  done  with  the  political 
leaders  of  the  Confederacy.     In  the  mountainous   region   of 
Eastern  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  where  Johnson  had  lived, 
the  Union  sentiment  was  so  strong  that  the  conflict  between 
the  Unionists  and  Confederates  was  greatly  embittered.     John 
son  now  showed  much  of  this  spirit  of  bitterness.     In  striking 
contrast  with  Lincoln,  he  took  the  position  that  the  leaders 
of  the  Confederacy  should  be  put  to  death.     Apparently  with 
this  purpose  in  view,  he  offered  a  reward  of   one  hundred 
thousand   dollars   for   the   capture   of    Jefferson   Davis,   and 
smaller  sums  for  the  capture   of   other  Confederate   leaders. 
After  a  long   and   difficult   pursuit,   Davis   was   captured   in 
Georgia  by  two  troops  of  General  Wilson's    cavalry,  in  May, 
1865.     He  was  sent  to  Fortress  Monroe,  where  he  was  kept  a 
prisoner  for  two  years.     As  other  members  of  the  Confederate 
government  were  taken,  they  were  sent  to  various  forts  to 
await  the  action  of  Congress.     The  influence  of  Seward  in 
favor  of  a  mild  policy,  and  the  doubtful  issue  of  the  compli 
cated  constitutional  cases  that  would  have  come  before  the 
courts,  finally  brought  it  to  pass  that  no  Confederate  leader 
was  tried  for  his  life.     This  treatment  of  the  vanquished  con 
trasts  favorably  with  the  methods  pursued  at  the  end  of  the 
Kevolutionary  War  in  dealing  with  the  Tories. 

566.  Difficulties    of  Reconstruction.  —  A   far   more   difficult 
question  to  be  determined  was  that  of  the  judicious  reestablish- 
ment  of  government  in  the  seceded  states.     This  difficulty  was 
partly  the  inevitable  consequence   of  a  great  civil  war,1  and 

1  Note,  as  examples,  the  turbulent  events  that  followed  the  English  civil 
war  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  great  civil  war  known  as  the  French 
Revolution. 


§  567]      DIFFERENT  POLICIES   OF   RECONSTRUCTION.          449 

partly  the  result  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  in  which  the 
North  and  the  South  were  now  placed.  The  white  men  of  the 
South  had  been  at  war  against  the  Union,  and  the  slaves  had 
been  set  free.  Should  the  former  slave  owners  at  once  be 
allowed  to  vote  ?  Should  the  negroes  be  given  a  vote  ?  These 
were  questions  of  the  utmost  importance,  because  the  emanci 
pation  of  slaves,  adopted  as  a  military  measure,  carried  with 
it  no  authority  to  prevent  the  reenslaving  of  negroes  after  the 
war  was  over  (§  546).  It  was  generally  felt  in  the  North 
that  if  the  old  master  should  be  allowed  to  vote  and  the 
freedman  should  not  be  given  that  privilege,  there  would  be  no 
assurance  that  slavery  in  one  form  or  another  would  not  be 
reestablished.  The  South,  on  the  other  hand,  believed  that 
to  give  the  suffrage  to  unqualified  masses  of  blacks  would  be 
unnecessary  and  intolerable.  It  seemed  to  be  impossible  to 
reconcile  the  two  views  on  this  question,  and  consequently  the 
course  to  be  taken  was  naturally  determined  by  the  party  in 
power.  Moreover,  the  leading  minds  of  the  Republican  party 
believed  that  the  negro  could  be  thoroughly  protected  only  by 
constitutional  amendments  which  would  make  it  impossible 
for  the  united  Democrats  of  the  North  and  the  South  to 
alter  whatever  measures  in  his  behalf  had  been  taken  by 
Congress. 

567.  Differences  between  President  and  Congress.  —  While  a 
majority  of  the  people  of  the  North  were  determined  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  any  form  of  domination  over  the  negroes, 
the  President,  as  a  Southern  Democrat,  cared  less  for  the  free 
dom  of  negroes  than  he  did  for  the  right  of  the  white  men 
in  the  individual  Southern  states  to  settle  their  own  affairs. 
Johnson,  therefore,  was  determined  that  the  Confederate  states 
should  come  back  into  the  Union  under  the  leadership  of  their 
white  voters.  This  would  mean,  of  course,  the  leadership  of 
those  who  had  recently  been  at  war  against  the  Union,  and 
to  such  a  result  the  Republican  members  of  Congress  were 
strongly  opposed. 


450      THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF  JOHNSON,    1865-1869.      [§  568 

568.  Provisional  Governors.  —  The  President  began  his  policy 
by  the  appointment  of  a  provisional  governor  for  each  of  the 
seceded  states.     This  governor  called  conventions  whose  mem- 
bers  were  to  be  elected  by  such  of  the  former  voters  as  should 
take  the  oath  of  loyalty  contained  in  the  Proclamation  of  Am 
nesty.     The  conventions  showed  their  loyalty  to  the  .Union  by 
repealing  the  Ordinances  of  Secession,  by  voting  that  no  debt 
should  ever  be  paid  that  had  been  incurred  by  the  Confederacy, 
and  by  ratifying  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
which  prohibited  slavery  forever  in  the  country  (§  546).     But, 
on  the  other  hand,  some  of  them  also  passed  laws  to  force  the 
freedmen  to  work,  under  penalty  of  imprisonment  as  vagrants. 
To  the  people  of  the  North  this  unfortunately  looked  like  an 
attempt  to  set  up  slavery  under  another  form.     It  was  prob 
ably  not  so  intended,  but  showed  at  least  great  indiscretion. 

569.  Refusal   of   Admission   to   Congress.  —  When    Congress 
met   in   December,  1865,  the    members  refused  to  admit  the 
representatives   that  had  been  sent  from  the  seceded  states. 
They  asserted,  moreover,  that   the   seceded   states   were   not 
in  the  Union  and  must  be  readmitted  before  their  acts  could 
have    authority,  and   before   they  could   have   representation 
in  Congress.     Tennessee  was  readmitted,  and  representatives 
from  this  state  were  received  in  Congress  in  1866,  but  no  other 
representatives  from  seceded  states  were  received  until  nearly 
two  years  later.     The  President  argued  that  Congress  had  no 
more  right  to  keep  a  state  out  of  Congress  than  a  state  had  to 
secede,  and  in  this  position  he  was  generally  supported  by  the 
Northern  Democrats. 

570.  The  Elections  of  1866. —The  future  of  reconstruction 
seemed  to  turn  on  the  result  of  the  elections  in  the  fall  of 
1866.     The  Kepublicans  won  a  large  majority  of  seats,  and  the 
Republican  members  of  the  outgoing  Congress  elected  in  1864, 
who  had  a  two-thirds  majority,  secured  through  representation 
of  the  border  states  and  denial  of  representation  to  the  seceded 
states,  saw  at  once  that  for  the  next  two  years  they  would  be 


§571]      DIFFERENT  POLICIES   OF  RECONSTRUCTION.         451 

able  to  control  legislation  by  passing  measures  over  the  Presi 
dent's  veto.  Emboldened  by  this  fact,  they  now  proceeded  to 
adopt  their  own  plan  of  reconstruction  without  waiting  for  the 
next  Congress. 

571.  Congressional  Plan  of  Reconstruction.  —  Many  theories 
were  held  with  regard  to  the  status  of  the  commonwealths  that 
had  seceded.  Some  persons 
held  that  they  were  conquered 
provinces  ;  others  that  they 
had  lost  their  statehood  and 
become  territories.  Others 
held  that  the  Southern  states 
had  committed  suicide,  as  it 
were,  and  that  the  Federal 
Constitution  and  laws  did  not 
apply  to  them,  and  would  not 
until  Congress  declared  them 
once  more  in  force.  This 
theory  prevailed  in  the  Con 
gressional  plan  of  reconstruc 
tion,  which  was  pushed  for 
ward  by  Thaddeus  Stevens,1 
of  Pennsylvania,  chairman  of 

the  Reconstruction    Commit-  THADDKUS  STEVENS. 

tee  and  of  the  Committee  on 

Ways  and  Means,  and  was  adopted  in  the  spring  of  1867. 
It  provided  that  the  negroes  should  vote,  and  that  the  Con 
federate  leaders  should  not  vote.  To  insure  the  permanent 
effects  of  these  results,  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  was  adopted  by  Congress,  and  was  ratified  July  28, 
1868,  by  the  necessary  majority  of  three-fourths  of  the  states. 

l  Born  in  Vermont,  1793;  died,  1868.  Graduated  at  Dartmouth;  practiced 
law  in  Pennsylvania ;  Whig  member  of  Congress,  1849-1853,  when  he  strenu 
ously  opposed  the  Compromise  of  1850;  Republican  member,  1859-1868,  of 
a  radical  type  and  great  influence  ;  advocated  very  severe  measures  during 
the  reconstruction  period ;  urged  emancipation,  the  Fourteenth  Amendment, 
the  Acts  of  Confiscation,  and  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 


452      THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  JOHNSON,    1865-1869.      [§  572 

572,  The   Fourteenth   Amendment.  —  While    the    Thirteenth 
Amendment   to   the    Constitution    forever   prohibited  slavery 
within  the  United  States  and  its  dependencies,  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment   excluded   from  Congress  and  from  all  civil   or 
military  offices  in  the  United  States  all  persons  who,  after 
having  taken  the  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,   should    "  have   engaged   in   insurrection   or   rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof,"  until  Congress,  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House, 
should  remove  such  disability.     The  Fourteenth  Amendment 
thus  had  the  stupendous  effect  of  disqualifying  from  holding 
office    all    the    most    prominent   Southern   leaders.      It   also 
guaranteed  civil  and  political  rights  to  the  negroes,  under  na 
tional  and  state  governments,  and  declared  invalid  all  debts 
and  obligations  incurred  by  the  states  that  had  seceded. 

573,  Methods   of    Reconstruction.  —  On   the   basis   of    these 
general  purposes  the  work  of  reconstruction  was  carried  on  in 
the  years  1867  and  1868.     Provision  was  made  for  civil  gov 
ernments  in  each  of  the  states  of  the  former  Confederacy,  and 
for   the   establishment   of   five   military   departments,   whose 
special  duty  it  was  to  see  that  the  requirements  of  Congress  in 
the  reconstruction  of  the  state  governments  were  carried  out. 

EFFECTS   OF   RECONSTRUCTION. 

574,  Irritation  in  the  South.  —  This  plan  of  government  was 
naturally  very  offensive  to  the  South,  for  it  made  the  negroes 
practically  rulers  over  their  former  owners.     In  June,  1868, 
the  representatives  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Louisiana, 
North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina  were  elected  under  the 
new  conditions  and  readmitted  to  Congress.    Those  of  Georgia, 
Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia  were  not  admitted  before  1870. 
During  the  first  period  of  reconstruction  the  freedmen  in  the 
South  were  generally  in  control ;  but  the  former  slaves  were 
ignorant  of  political  affairs,  and  had  always  been  in  the  habit 
of  acting  as  they  were  directed.     At  first  they  were  under 


§  576]  EFFECTS   OF  RECONSTRUCTION.  453 

the  influence  of  the  military  governments  and  of  the  "  Carpet 
Baggers,"  and  voted  solidly  against  the  whites ;  but  gradually 
they  yielded  to  the  persuasions  of  the  people  who  employed 
them. 

575.  "  Carpet  Baggers  "  and  "  Scalawags."  —  The  Northerners 
who  moved  into  the  South  after  the  war  for  the  purpose  of 
securing   office   through  negro   votes   were   popularly   known 
as  "  Carpet  Baggers "  ;    and  the  Southern  whites  who  voted 
with  the  negroes  were  given  the  name  of  "  Scalawags."     Be 
tween  the  "  Carpet  Baggers  "  and  "  Scalawags "  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  old  inhabitants  on  the  other,  there  was  bitter 
warfare,  resulting  in  murders  on  both  sides.     The  condition  of 
the  South  during  this  administration  and  the   one  following 
showed  how  nearly  impossible  it  is,  even  under  military  rule, 
to  enforce  any  laws  in  a  community  where   such   laws   are 
earnestly  opposed  by  a  majority  or  even  by  a  large  portion 
of  the  intelligent  citizens.     The  whites   were,  for  the  most 
part,  determined  not  to  let  the  government  fall  into  the  hands 
of  negroes  ;  and  when  the  blacks  abstained  from  taking  part  in 
the"  government  they  were  generally  not  interfered  with.     In 
many  localities  they  were  aided  and  encouraged  in  their  efforts 
for  improvement ;  but  society  in  the  Southern  states  found  it 
hard  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  conditions.     The  determination 
that  negroes  should  not  rule  was  so  deep-seated  that  the  pur 
poses  of  the  government  were  frustrated  in  many  ways. 

576.  The  "  Ku-Klux-Klan."  —  A  secret  society,  known  as  the 
"  Ku-Klux-Klan,"  was  organized,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  "  Carpet  Baggers,"  and  to  make  it 
impossible  for  Northern  men  to  get  control  of   local  affairs. 
Many  Northern  men  were  secretly  seized,  and  some  even  put  to 
death,  and,  for  a  considerable  time,  in  many  parts  of  the  South, 
something  like  a  reign  of  terror  prevailed.  Gradually,  however, 
a  better  feeling  was  developed;  but  this  was  not  until  both 
whites  and  blacks  came  to  see  that  the  welfare  of  the  negroes 
would  be  better  served  by  industrial  and  educational  than  by 


454      THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   JOHNSON,    1865-1869.      [§  577 

political  methods.  This  belief  was  slow  in  coming;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  administration  of  President  Hayes,  about 
ten  years  later,  that  order  and  some  measure  of  prosperity  were 
established. 

JOHNSON  AND   CONGRESS. 

577.  Strained  Relations  of   President  and  Congress.  —  While 
these  conditions  greatly  agitated  society  throughout  the  South, 
the  relations  of  the  President  and  Congress  were   becoming 
more   and  more   strained.     Many  acts  were  passed  over  the 
executive  veto.1     The  President  kept  up  the  irritation  by  freely 
and  offensively    accusing  the   members  of  keeping   Southern 
representatives  out  of  Congress  in  order  that  they  might  pass 
measures  over  his  veto.     His  arguments  were  often  powerful, 
but  his  lack  of  tact  prevented  him  from  winning  men  to  his 
views.     Matters  were  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  passage  of  the 
"  Tenure  of  Office  Act "  in  the  early  part  of  1867. 

578.  The  Tenure  of  Office  Act. — Under  the  Constitution  the 
President  makes  appointments  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate.     The  Constitution  is  silent  in  regard  to  the  power 
of  removals  ;  but  in  1789  it  was  decided  that  removals  did  not  re 
quire  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  but  could  be  made  solely  at  the 
discretion  of  the  President.    This  was  the  rule  until  March,  1867, 

1  Among  these  may  be  enumerated  the  Civil  Rights  Bill,  which  gave  the 
negroes  citizenship  with  suffrage  (1866),  and  the  Second  Freedmen's  Bureau 
Bill,  which  was  designed  to  help  the  former  slaves  by  securing  them  employ 
ment  and  in  other  ways  (1866).  The  Fourteenth  Amendment  was  also  disap 
proved  by  the  President,  and,  of  course,  the  congressional  plan  of  reconstruc 
tion.  Congress,  by  a  "  rider  "  to  the  Army  Appropriation  Bill,  really  deprived 
the  President  of  his  power  as  commander  in  chief ;  and  by  adopting  measures 
which  enabled  a  new  Congress  to  meet  immediately  after  the  expiration  of  its 
predecessor,  took  away  from  the  President  all  opportunity  to  act  upon  his  own 
judgment  during  the  interim  between  Congresses.  In  other  words,  the  radical 
members  of  Congress  were  so  determined  to  carry  out  their  policy  that  in  the 
two  measures  last  enumerated  and  in  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  they  overleaped 
the  Constitution  and  practically  set  up  a  revolutionary  government  of  their 
own.  On  the  other  hand,  the  President's  breach  of  courtesy  in  delivering 
harangues  against  Congress,  at  various  points  in  the  country,  was  highly 
exasperating. 


§  579]  JOHNSON  AND   CONGRESS.  455 

when  Congress  passed  over  the  President's  veto  the  "Tenure  of 
Office  Act/'  which  provided  in  substance  that  no  person  whose 
appointment  required  the  approval  of  the  Senate  could  be 
dismissed  without  the  same  approval.  In  August,  1867,  John 
son  requested  the  resignation  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  Edwin 
M.  Stan  ton,  who  was  in  sympathy  with  Congress  rather  than 
with  the  President.  Stanton  refused  to  resign  and  was  sus 
pended,  General  Grant  taking  his  place.  When  Congress  met 
the  suspension  was  not  ratified,  and  Grant  resigned  and  Stanton 
resumed  the  duties  of  Secretary.  Johnson,  who  regarded  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act  as  unconstitutional,  then  removed  him. 
Stanton,  when  the  Senate  had  pronounced  the  removal  illegal, 
refused  to  give  up  his  office  and  appealed  to  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

579.  Impeachment  of  the  President.  —  The  House,  in  which 
a  similar  attempt  had'  already  failed,  at  once  resolved  to 
impeach  the  President,  by  accusing  him  of  having  violated 
the  laws  and  of  being  unfit  to  hold  his  office.  According 
to  the  Constitution,  when  such  a  vote  takes  place,  a  trial 
must  be  held  before  the  Senate  as  judges.  The  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  is  to  preside,  and,  in  order  to  re 
move  the  President,  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present  must 
vote  that  he  is  guilty  of  the  crimes  or  misdemeanors  charged 
against  him.  Johnson's  trial,  which  began  on  March  5,  1868, 
was  conducted  with  great  ability  on  both  sides,  by  several 
of  the  ablest  lawyers  in  the  country.  In  the  test  vote,  taken 
on  May  16,  thirty-five  senators  pronounced  him  guilty,  and 
nineteen  not  guilty,  five  Republicans  not  voting  with  their 
party.  As  the  number  thirty-five  was  less  than  the  requisite 
two-thirds,  the  vote  was  legally  an  acquittal  of  the  President, 
and  Secretary  Stanton  resigned.1  While  the  trial  was  in  prog- 


1  That  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  which  was  partly  the  cause  of  the  disgrace 
ful  final  clash  between  the  President  and  Congress,  was  a  partisan  and  unwise 
measure  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  was  soon  modified,  and  that  in  1887  it  was 
repealed. 


456      THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF   JOHNSON,    1865-18G9.      [§  581) 


ress,  Johnson  made  his  famous  "  Swinging  round  the  Circle ' 
tour  in  the  Northwest  and  delivered  extreme  speeches  against 
Congress. 

580.  Election  of  General  Grant.  —  The  Presidential  election 
of  1868  turned  upon  the  policy  of  the  government  in  regard  to 

reconstruction.  The 
Republican  party, 
generally  supporting 
the  policy  of  Con 
gress,  nominated  with 
enthusiasm  and  una 
nimity,  General  Ulys 
ses  S.  Grant  and 
Schuyler  Colfax  of 
Indiana.  The  Demo 
crats,  opposing  that 
policy,  put  in  the  field 
Horatio  Seymour1  of 
New  York  and  Frank 
P.  Blair  of  Missouri. 
The  election  resulted 
in  two  hundred  and 
fourteen  electoral 
votes  for  the  Repub 
lican  candidates,  and 
eighty  for  the  Demo 
cratic.  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia,  not  having  been  read 
mitted,  could  not  vote. 

iBorn  in  New  York,  1810;  died,  1886.  Was  military  secretary  of  Gov 
ernor  Marcy;  as  assemblyman,  mayor  of  Utica,  and  Speaker  of  the  Assem 
bly,  he  became  very  prominent  as  Democratic  leader :  was  governor  of  New 
York,  1853-1855,  after  having  been  defeated  as  candidate  in  1850;  also  gov 
ernor,  1863-1865 ;  supported  the  Union  during  the  War,  but  in  a  spirit  that 
provoked  much  criticism,  as  did,  notably,  his  speech  to  the  rioters  in  New 
York  City  in  1863;  presided  over  Democratic  Convention  in  1868,  and,  against 
his  will,  was  nominated  for  President;  was  defeated  by  General  Grant. 


HORATIO  SEYMOUR. 


REFERENCES.  457 

REFERENCES.  —  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  254-300;  Dunning, 
Essays  on  the  Civil  War  and  Reconstruction  ;  Johnson,  American  Politics, 
207-279;  Elaine,  Twenty  Years  in  Congress;  Landon,  Constitutional 
History;  Gorham,  Life  of  E.  M.  Stanton ;  Schouler,  United  States, 
Vol.  VI.  ;  McCall,  Thaddeus  Stevens;  Storey,  Charles  Sumner ;  Hart, 
Salmon  P.  Chase  (in  "American  Statesmen"  series);  J.  W.  Burgess, 
Reconstruction  and  the  Constitution  (1902).  See  also  a  series  of  articles 
in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  for  1901,  and  W.  P.  Trent,  "A  New  South 
View  of  Reconstruction,"  in  the  Sewanee  Review,  January,  1901 ;  Chan- 
ning  and  Hart,  Guide,  §  25. 

On  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the  South,  from  the  Northern  point  of 
view,  see  Tourgee's  Fool's  Errand,  and  also  his  Bricks  without  Straw. 
For  a  discriminating  Southern  view,  see  Thomas  Nelson  Page's  Red  Rock. 

On  this  period  and  on  those  that  follow,  the  histories  are  few  and  not 
conclusive.  Reliance  for  sources  must  be  placed  on  the  current  literature 
and  on  such  books  as  McPherson's  Handbooks,  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclo 
paedia,  Mulhall's  Dictionary  of  Statistics,  Shaler's  United  States,  and 
the  writings  of  the  leading  statesmen  as  indicated  in  Channing  and 
Hart's  Guide. 


PAET   VII. 

PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT, 

1869-1902. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   GRANT,   1869-1877. 

GRANT'S   FIRST    ADMINISTRATION,  1869-1873. 

581.  Pacific  Railroads. — The  policy  of  helping  railroad 
building  by  Federal  land  grants  began  as  early  as  1850,  when 
an  important  grant  was  given  to  aid  the  construction  of  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad.  In  the  course  of  the  next  six  years 
several  other  grants  were  made  for  similar  purposes.  The 
construction  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific  was  recommended  by 
the  Republican  platform  of  1856 ;  but  the  project  was  delayed 
by  differences  between  the  North  and  the  South  in  regard  to  the 
location  of  the  road.  In  1862  the  Union  Pacific  was  projected 
to  extend  from  Omaha  to  Ogden,  where  it  was  to  connect  with 
the  Central  Pacific  for  San  Francisco.  Though  these  roads 
were  built  by  private  corporations,  the  latter  were  largely  aided 
by  Congress.1  Besides  granting  every  other  section  of  land 
along  the  routes  for  a  space  twenty  miles  in  width,  the  govern- 

i  The  Union  Pacific  was  to  receive  $16,000  for  each  mile  across  the  plains, 
$48,000  for  each  mile  across  the  mountains,  and  $32,000  per  mile  for  the 
remainder  of  the  way.  The  Central  Pacific  was  to  receive  an  average  of  a 
little  more  than  $31,000  a  mile.  The  total  amount  received  was  $55,076,000. 

458 


§  582]        GRANT'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,    1869-1873.        459 

merit  guaranteed  the  bonds  of  the  corporations  to  the  extent 
of  over  thirty  thousand  dollars  a  mile.  The  roads  were 
completed  in  1869,  the  first  year  of  Grant's  administration.1 
Though  the  transcontinental  lines  have  not  generally  proved 
profitable  to  stockholders,  they  have  been  of  immense  advan 
tage  to  the  country  as  a  whole.  Formerly  from  three  to  six 
weeks  were  required  for  the  senators  and  representatives  to 
reach  Washington  from  California  and  Oregon ;  but  the  rail 
roads  reduced  the  time  to  a  single  week.  Another  advantage 
of  far  greater  importance  was  the  encouragement  offered  by 
the  roads  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  regions  through  which 
they  passed.  The  new  Western  states  increased  in  population 
with  amazing  rapidity,  partly  from  foreign  immigration,  and 
partly  from  the  migration  of  people  from  the  Eastern  states. 
By  the  census  of  1870  it  was  found  that  more  than  a  million 
inhabitants  had  already  settled  along  the  transcontinental  lines. 
The  Pacific  states  now  for  the  first  time  seemed  to  be  an  in 
tegral  part  of  the  Union. 

582.  San  Domingo  Question.  —  In  1869  the  people  of  the 
liepublic  of  San  Domingo  expressed  a  desire  to  be  annexed  to 
the  United  States.  Grant  favored  annexation,  and  a  treaty 
was  drawn  up,  but  the  project  met  with  much  popular  oppo 
sition.  A  commission,  consisting  of  Senator  B.  F.  Wade  of 
Ohio,  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe  of  Massachusetts,  and  President 
Andrew  D.  White  of  Cornell  University,  was  sent  to  inspect  the 
island  and  report  upon  its  condition.  The  opposition  to  the 
treaty  was  based  principally  upon  the  fact  that  the  people  of  San 
Domingo  were  chiefly  ignorant  negroes.  Public  opinion  seemed 
not  to  favor  an  addition  to  the  number  of  negroes  giving  trouble 
to  the  government,  and  the  Senate  rejected  the  treaty. 

1  The  Northern  Pacific,  which  extends  from  St.  Paul  to  Puget  Sound,  was 
built  with  the  help  of  forty-seven  million  acres  of  land,  hut  was  not  completed 
until  1883.  The  Southern  Pacific,  which  extends  from  New  Orleans  to  San 
Francisco,  was  also  assisted  hy  the  government  and  was  completed  some  years 
later.  The  Santa  Fe  and  the  Great  Northern,  at  a  still  later  period,  also  con 
nected  the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Pacific  Coast. 


460        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.     [§  583 

583.  Fifteenth  Amendment.  —  In  order  to  improve  the  status 
of  the  negroes  in  the  South  the  congressional  plan  of  recon 
struction  was  supplemented  by  the  adoption,  in  1870,  of  the 
Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution.    This  provided  that 
no  person  should  thereafter  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of 
voting  "  because  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  ser 
vitude."     During  the  same  year,  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Vir 
ginia  were  admitted  to  representation  in  Congress ;  and  in  1871, 
for  the  first  time  in  ten  years,  every  state  in  the  Union  was 
duly  represented. 

584.  Negro   Legislation.  —  The  negroes,  although   the  most 
ignorant  part  of  the  population,  were  in  control  of  the  Southern 
legislatures,  and  their  legislation  was,  as  a  rule,  very  crude  and 
unwise.     The  white  people  of  the  South  owned  most  of  the 
property,  but  the  blacks,  through  their  control  of  the  legis 
latures,  to  which  they  often  elected  unscrupulous  white  men, 
had  the  power  to  levy  taxes.     This  fact  kept  up  the  violent 
opposition  on  the   part   of  the  white  population  which  had 
begun  under  President  Johnson.     The  negroes  were  sometimes 
bribed  to  keep  away  from  the  polls ;  sometimes  threatened  with 
discharge  from  employment  if  they  voted ;  and  sometimes  were 
kept  from  voting  by  force.    Congress  retaliated  by  penal  legis 
lation   against   such   interference  with  the   negro's   right   to 
suffrage.     So-called  "Force  Bills"  were  passed  in  1870  and 
1871,  which  increased  the  bitter  feeling  in   the   South.     To 
preserve  order,  the  provisional  governors  were  obliged  to  call 
on  the   President   for  Federal  troops.     This   augmented   the 
strife,  and  the  Ku-Klux-Klan  (§  576)  was  increasingly  active. 
Within  a  year,  however,  affairs  quieted  down,  a  general  Am 
nesty  Act  and  other  milder  legislation  helped  to  placate  the 
whites,  and  soon  the  Supreme  Court,  by  important  decisions, 
made  it  plain  that  the  individual  states,  in  spite  of  the  new 
Constitutional  Amendments,  could  control  their  own  citizens  in 
many  important  ways.     Thus  the  fears  of  the  whites  that  the 
blacks  would  secure  permanent  control  of  affairs  were  allayed. 


§  587]      GRANT'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,    1869-1873.          461 

585.  The  Treaty  of  Washington.  —  In  1871  a  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  was  signed  at  Washington, 
by  which  both  nations  agreed  to  submit  to  arbitration  what 
were  known  as  the  "  Alabama  Claims,"  made  by  the  United 
States  against  Great  Britain  on  account  of  losses  to  American 
shipping,  caused  by  Confederate  privateers  fitted  out  in  Brit 
ish  ports  (§  502).     By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  questions 
involved  were  to  be  settled  by  a  court  of  five  arbitrators,  one  to 
be  appointed  by  each  of  the  governments  of  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil.     The  Court  sat 
at  Geneva  in  1872.     Elaborate  testimony  was  offered  on  both 
sides.     The  United  States  government  was  able  to  show  that 
the  British  government  had  been  repeatedly  warned  of  the  fit 
ting  out  of  the  Alabama  and  other  Confederate  cruisers.     The 
Court,  after  hearing  the  evidence  and  arguments,  held  that 
Great  Britain  had  not  been  duly  watchful,  as  required  by  inter 
national  law,  to  prevent  the  use  of  her  ports  by  the  agents 
of  the  Confederacy,  and  accordingly  decided  that  the  British 
government  should  pay  to  the  United  States  damages  to  the 
amount  of  fifteen  million  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gold. 

586.  Northwest  Boundary  :  Canadian  Fisheries.  —  The  Treaty 
of  Washington  also  provided  for  the  settlement  by  arbitration 
of  two  other  important  questions  that  had  been  in  dispute  for 
a  considerable  time.     These  were  the  boundary  between  the 
Oregon  region  and  Canada,  not  clearly  defined  by  the  Treaty 
of  1846,  and  the  fishery  claims  on  the  northeastern  Canadian 
coast.     By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington  the  boundary 
question  was  submitted  to  the  German  Emperor,  who  gave  his 
decision,  in  1872,  in  favor  of  the  American  claim.     The  arbi 
trators  to  whom  the  fisheries  question  was  referred  decided 
against  the  United  States  and  that  the  government  should  pay 
five  million  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  the  use  of  the 
Canadian  shores  for  drying  and  curing  fish. 

587.  Chicago  and  Boston  Fires.  —  The  autumn  of  1871  will 
long  be  memorable  for  one  of  the  most  disastrous  conflagrations 


462        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.     PS  588 


ever  known.  In  the  evening  of  October  8;  a  fire  broke  out  in  a 
stable  in  West  Chicago,  and  soon  spread  so  that  it  was  beyond 
control.  Every  structure  within  a  space  of  more  than  three 
square  miles  in  the  heart  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ruins. 
More  than  a  hundred  thousand  people  were  deprived  of  their 
homes,  and  the  loss  of  property  was  estimated  at  more  than 
two  hundred  million  dollars.  In  November  of  the  following 
year,  about  seventy -five  acres  in  the  richest  part  of  Boston  were 
burned  over,  at  a  loss  of  about  seventy-five  million  dollars. 

588.  Presidential  Nominations.  —  As  the  end  of  Grant's  first 
term  approached  it  became  evident  that  he  would  berenominated, 

although  there  were 
many  disaffected  Kepub- 
licans.  The  prevalence 
of  political  scandals  and 
the  continued  unsatis 
factory  condition  of  the 
South  were  the  most 
serious  causes  of  com 
plaint.  The  discontented 
Kepublicans  clustered 
about  Horace  Greeley l 
of  New  York,  and  at  a 
convention  held  at  Cin 
cinnati,  in  May,  1872,  het 
was  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  with  B.  Gratz 
Brown  of  Missouri  for 
HORACE  GREELEY.  Vice  President.  The  plat 

form    adopted    charged 

the  administration  with  unscrupulous  and  selfish  use  of 
power  in  the  South,  and  demanded  the  immediate  substi- 

1  Born  in  New  Hampshire,  1811 ;  died,  1872.  Edited  various  newspapers  in 
New  York  City  until  he  founded  the  Tribune,  1841,  which  he  edited  with  great 
power  till  the  year  of  his  death ;  was  first  a  Whig,  then  a  Republican ;  always 
an  advocate  of  protection,  and  during  the  later  years  of  his  life  au  advocate 


§689]    GRANT'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,    1873-1877.        463 

tution  of  civil  for  military  power  in  the  Southern  states.  As 
the  views  promulgated  by  this  platform  were  substantially 
those  of  the  Democratic  party,  the  Greeley  platform  and  can 
didates  were  accepted  as  their  own  by  the  Democratic  Con 
vention.  The  union,  however,  was  not  an  auspicious  one. 
Greeley  had  been  active  and  influential  as  a  Whig  and  Repub 
lican  and  a  lifelong  opponent  of  the  Democrats,  and  was 
therefore  distrusted.  Many  Democrats  regarded  the  nomi 
nation  as  a  cowardly  surrender.  The  opposition  found  expres 
sion  in  a  call  for  a  strictly  Democratic  convention  to  be  held, 
September  3,  at  Louisville,  Kentucky.  The  result  was  the 
nomination  of  Charles  O'Connor  of  New  York  for  President, 
and  John  Quincy  Adams  of  Massachusetts  for  Vice  President. 
As  Greeley  died  a  few  days  after  the  electors  were  chosen 
and  before  their  vote  was  cast,  the  Democratic  vote  was  scat 
tering,  and  Grant  received  two  hundred  and  eighty-six  of  the 
three  hundred  and  forty-nine  electoral  votes. 

GRANT'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  1873-1877. 

589.  Commercial  Activity  and  the  Crisis  of  1873. — During 
Grant's  first  administration  there  was  remarkable  commercial 
activity  throughout  the  country.  Money  was  very  abundant, 
and  prices  were  high ;  and,  now  that  the  war  was  over,  capital 
was  everywhere  seeking  investment  in  new  enterprises.  The 
war  between  France  and  Germany  in  1870  and  1871,  and  the 
bad  harvests  of  Europe  generally,  made  a  great  market  for 
all  American  products.  An  era  of  railroad  construction  and 
speculation  naturally  ensued.  Everybody  seemed  to  wish  to 
invest  in  the  new  roads,  many  of  which  could  not  pay  the 
expenses  of  operation.  In  the  four  years  of  Grant's  first 
administration,  the  mileage  of  railroads  in  the  country  was 
increased  about  fifty  per  cent ;  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that 
the  work  had  been  enormously  overdone.  All  at  once,  when 

of  universal  suffrage  and  general  amnesty ;  became  one  of  the  bondsmen  of 
Jefferson  Davis  in  1867 ;  was  nominated  for  President  by  discontented  Re 
publicans  and  Democrats  in  1872. 


464        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS  OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.       [§590 

nearly  everybody  wished  to  sell,  nobody  wished  to  buy.  On 
September  19,  1873,  Jay  Cooke  &  Company,  leading  bankers 
in  Philadelphia,  failed,  and  Wall  Street  in  New  York  was 
thrown  into  such  a  panic  that  the  day  has  ever  since  been 
known  as  "  Black  Friday."  A  financial  stringency  ensued  which 
resulted  in  a  universal  fall  of  prices,  many  failures,  and  much 
distress.  It  was  not  until  1879  that  prosperity  was  restored. 

590.  Political  Scandals.  —  Grant's  second  term  was  marked 
by  still  greater  political  scandals  than  his  first.  These  were 
largely  due  to  the  spirit  of  speculation  just  described.  Several 
of  the  new  railroad  projects  were  founded  on  land  grants  from 
Congress,  and  railroad  projectors  seemed  everywhere  desirous 
of  securing  aid  from  the  government.  A  company,  known  as 
the  "  Credit  Mobilier,"  had  been  formed  to  finance  the  Union 
Pacific,  and  this  company  distributed  stock  among  men  of 
influence  in  a  scandalous  manner.  A  Congressional  Committee 
of  Investigation,  appointed  in  December,  1872,  reported  in 
February,  1873,  and  showed  that  some  of  the  stock  was  given 
to  congressmen,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  securing  their 
votes.  Two  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  were 
formally  censured.  The  spirit  of  corruption  was  thought 
to  have  entered  the  Cabinet,  and  one  Cabinet  officer,  W.  W. 
Belknap,  Secretary  of  War,  was  impeached  for  receiving  bribes, 
but  escaped  dismissal  by  resignation  a  few  hours  before  the 
House  passed  the  impeaching  resolution.  Enough  senators 
held  that  he  was  not  then  impeachable  to  prevent  convic 
tion.  A  Whisky  Eing  was  discovered  in  1875,  that  had  been 
organized  by  Federal  officials  and  distillers  for  the  purpose 
of  defrauding  the  government  of  the  taxes  due  on  the  manu 
facture  of  whisky.  Numerous  Indian  uprisings  were  found  to 
be  largely  the  result  of  dishonest  methods  practiced  by  Indian 
commissioners  and  contractors  in  cheating  Indians  out  of  their 
just  dues.  While  no  scandal  of  any  kind  ever  attached  to  Grant 
himself,  it  was  widely  felt  that  he  was  overindulgent  to 
officials  of  questionable  honesty.  Mainly  in  consequence  of 


§592]     GRANT'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION,    1873-1877.        465 

these  scandals,  there  was  a  general  outcry  from  the  public,  and 
a  demand  for  a  different  system  of  appointment  to  all  the  minor 
civil  offices. 

591.  Extravagance  of  Congress.  —  The  spirit  of  dissatisfaction 
that  prevailed  among  the  people  at  large  was  much  intensified 
in  1873  by  the  action  of  Congress  in  raising  the  salaries  of  a 
large  number  of  Federal  officers.    The  salary  of  the  President 
was  advanced  from   twenty-five   thousand   to   fifty  thousand 
dollars  a  year ;  and  the  salary  of  congressmen  was  increased 
from  five  thousand  dollars  to  seven  thousand.      In  the  case  of 
congressmen,  the  increase  was  made  to  apply  to  the  Congress 
then  in  session.    The  act  raised  a  storm  of  indignation  through 
out  the  country.     It  was  the  back-pay  clause,  known  as  the 
"salary  grab,"  that  was  particularly  obnoxious.      Nearly  all 
those  members  who  voted  for  the  increase  were  defeated  at 
the  next  election ;  and  so  much  of  the  measure  as  related  to 
congressmen  was  repealed  at  the  next  session. 

592.  Civil  Service  Reform.  —  To  give  voice  to  the  demands  for 
improvement  in  the  public  service,  a  National  Civil  Service 
Reform  Association  was  organized,   which  devoted  itself  to 
agitation  favoring  new  methods  of  appointment.     From  the 
time  of  Jackson,  the  custom  had  been  growing  for  a  new  Presi 
dent  to  turn  out  of  office  those  who  had  actively  opposed  him, 
and  to  appoint  those  who  had  actively  supported  him.     The 
numerous  scandals  in  Grant's  administration  were  thought  to 
result   largely   from  this    system,   and  a  demand  for  reform 
became  general.     The   first   Civil    Service   Keform   Law  was 
passed  March  3,  1871.      This  law  authorized  the  President  to 
frame  and  administer  such  rules  as  he  deemed  best  for  the 
regulation  of  appointments  in  the  Civil  Service.     The  measure 
received  Grant's  approval,  and  he  appointed  the  distinguished 
author  and  orator  George  William  Curtis,  an  earnest  advocate 
of  reform,  as  the  head  of  a  Board  of  Commissioners,  who  were 
to  examine  candidates  for  the  minor  positions  and  report  the 
results  to  the  President.    From  those  who  passed  the  examina- 


466        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS  OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.     [§  593 

tions  most  successfully,  the  President  was  to  make  the  appoint 
ments.  For  three  years  this  system  of  competitive  examinations 
was  followed ;  but,  as  congressmen  were  thus  deprived  of  the 
privilege  of  recommending  constituents  for  appointment,  Con 
gress  in  1874  refused  to  vote  money  to  maintain  the  commis 
sion,  and  the  work  was  thus  temporarily  frustrated.  This  was 
also  a  period  of  local  political  corruption.  The  Tammany 
Society,  under  its  "  Boss,"  William  Marcy  Tweed,  governed 
New  York  City  in  a  most  scandalous  and  extravagant  fashion. 
Finally,  owing  to  exposures  made  in  1871,  chiefly  through  the 
agency  of  the  New  York  Times,  Tweed  was  brought  to  trial  and 
convicted.1 

593.  Indian  Troubles.  —  During  both  of  Grant's  administra 
tions  Indian  troubles  were  serious,  partly  in  consequence  of 
the  political  corruption  of  the  period  (§  590).  In  the  course 
of  the  Civil  War,  the  Sioux  in  Minnesota,  taking  advantage  of 
the  absence  of  the  United  States  troops,  had  risen  in  rebel 
lion  and  massacred  a  considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants. 
With  some  difficulty  the  agitators  were  captured,  and  thirty- 
four  of  them  were  simultaneously  hanged  on  a  single  gallows 
at  Mankato.  This  striking  exhibition  of  energy  on  the  part  of 
the  government  put  an  end  to  revolts  for  a  time,  but  relief  was 
only  temporary.  The  Modocs,  in  southern  Oregon,  when  ordered 
to  another  reservation  in  1873,  refused  to  go,  and  even  put  to 
death  the  peace  commissioner  sent  to  deal  with  them.  They 
were  finally  subdued,  after  nearly  a  year  of  fighting.  In  1875 
the  Sioux  again  arose,  under  the  leadership  of  Sitting  Bull; 
but  they  were  gradually  driven  west  as  far  as  the  Little  Big 


i  Tweed  (1823-1878)  was  a  son  of  a  chair-maker  which  trade  he  first  followed. 
He  became  a  power  in  local  politics  through  the  influence  he  acquired  as  a 
popular  member  of  a  fire  company.  He  served  as  alderman  and  congressman, 
but  did  his  chief  plundering  as  commissioner  of  public  works  of  New  York  City. 
He  was  finally  convicted  in  1873  and  imprisoned  and  fined,  but  in  1875  his  im 
prisonment  was  declared  illegal.  Civil  suits  were  still  pending  against  him 
and  the  enormous  bail  of  $3,000,000  was  required,  in  default  of  which  he  was  put 
in  jail.  He  escaped  to  Cuba  and  Spain,  but  was  brought  back  and  died  in  jail. 


§594]     GRANT'S   SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,    1873-1877.        467 

Horn  River  in  southern  Montana.    Here  they  were  imprudently 
attacked  by  General  George  A.  Custer,1  who,  with  his  regiment, 
was  surrounded  and  every  member  of  the  force  with  one  ex 
ception     was     killed 
(June       25,       1876). 
Fresh    troops    finally 
repulsed  the  Indians 
and    they    withdrew 
into  British  America. 

594.  The  Virginius 
Affair.  —  Good  sense 
on  both  sides  averted 
hostilities  in  another 
quarter.  In  October, 
1873,  an  American 
merchant  vessel,  the 
Virginius,  was  cap 
tured  on  the  high 
seas,  near  Jamaica,  by 
a  Spanish  man-of-war, 
on  the  ground  that  it 
intended  to  land  men 

to  assist  in  the  Cuban  GENERAL  GEORGE  A.  CUSTER. 

insurrection    then    in 

progress.  Several  Cubans,  with  Captain  Fry  and  a  number  of 
other  persons  found  among  the  passengers,  were  seized  and 
executed.  The  event  caused  not  a  little  excitement  in  the 
United  States.  Spain  made  immediate  and  ample  repara 
tion  ;  but  the  incident  served  to  increase  the  filibustering  spirit 
toward  Cuba  that  had  long  been  prevalent,  especially  in  the 
South. 

1  Born  in  Ohio,  1839;  died,  1876.  Graduated  from  West  Point,  1861.  Served 
with  distinction  in  Civil  War,  especially  in  Shenandoah  Valley;  brigadier 
general  of  volunteers,  1863 ;  brevetted  brigadier  general  United  States  Army, 
1865;  served  later  in  the  West  against  the  Indians;  killed  in  the  massacre  of 
his  command,  1876. 


468        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS  OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.     [§  59£ 

595.  The  Centennial  Exposition. — In  the  last  year  of  Grant's 
second  administration,1  the  fact  that  "  peace  hath  her  victories 
no  less  renowned  than  war"  was  strikingly  proved.     The  cen 
tennial  of  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  celebrated  by  a  great  International  Industrial  Exposition 
at  Philadelphia.  .  It  was  also,  as  an  undertaking  of  all  the 
states,  a  sign  of  real  national  unity  after  years  of  strife.     The 
exposition  was  opened  in  May,  1876,  and  was  visited  by  mil 
lions  of  people,  drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  from 
Europe.     The  superiority  of  the  United  States  in  various  kinds 
of  labor-saving  machines  and  inventions,  among  them  telephones 
and  appliances  for  electric  lighting,  was  a  source  of  national 
pride ;  and  the  cause  of  popular  education  was  served  by  the 
exhibition  of  the  mechanical  and  artistic  achievements  of  for 
eign  nations. 

PARTY   POLITICS. 

596.  The  Greenback  Party.  —  As  early  as  1863  the  principal 
and  interest  of  the  national  bonds  had  been  made  payable  in 

1  Though  President  Grant's  public  career  ended  with  his  second  administra 
tion,  which  had  been  greatly  discredited,  the  last  years  of  his  life  made  a 
deep  impression  on  the  people  at  large.  Soon  after  the  close  of  his  second 
term  he  made  a  journey  around  the  world,  and,  wherever  he  went,  honors 
were  showered  upon  him.  In  China,  in  Germany,  and  in  Great  Britain  it 
was  especially  evident  that  the  greatness  of  his  military  career  had  made 
a  profound  impression.  After  his  return,  two  events  deeply  moved  the 
public  sympathy.  In  the  first  place,  he  had  intrusted  nearly  all  of  his  moder 
ate  fortune  to  a  banking  house  in  New  York,  in  whose  managers  he  had 
shown  an  unjustifiable  confidence  The  bank  failed  so  disastrously  that 
Grant  felt  compelled  to  offer  for  sale  the  various  swords  that  had  been 
presented  to  him,  as  well  as  other  important  memorials  of  the  war.  These 
were  purchased  by  William  H.  Vanderbilt  for  one  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
and  given  to  the  nation  for  preservation  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  In 
the  second  place,  it  became  evident,  in  1884  that  his  life  was  in  immediate 
peril  from  an  incurable  disease.  Fully  realizing  that  his  death  was  approach 
ing,  he  set  about  the  preparation  of  his  Memoirs,  in  the  hope  that  the  sale  of 
the  work  would  aid  in  furnishing  support  for  the  dependent  members  of  his 
family.  Though  tortured  by  excruciating  pain,  he  pushed  on  the  work  in 
the  most  heroic  manner  and  was  able  to  complete  it  just  before  his  death, 
in  July,  1885.  The  great  merits  of  these  two  volumes  secured  for  them  an 
instant  public  reception,  and  the  heroism  and  the  pathos  of  the  great  soldier's 
last  days  very  deeply  touched  the  popular  heart. 


§  597]  PARTY  POLITICS.  469 

coin.  But  as  the  price  of  gold  rose,  —  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  the  price  of  paper  notes  fell,  —  it  was  possible  to 
sell  bonds  and  with  the  gold  and  silver  thus  received  to  pur 
chase  greenbacks,  and  thus  apparently  to  double  the  rate  of 
interest.  As  the  bonds  were  largely  held  by  rich  men,  an 
outcry  rose  that  the  law  should  be  changed,  and  that  all 
bonds  should  be  made  payable,  principal  and  interest,  in  green 
backs.  Public  feeling  culminated  in  a  political  convention  at 
Indianapolis,  November  25,  1874,  in  which  a  demand  was  made 
for  a  general  substitution  of  a  paper  currency  in  place  of  coin. 
The  Greenback  Party,  as  it  was  called,  nominated  Peter 
Cooper  of  New  York  for  President  in  1876,  and  he  received 
eighty-one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty  votes,  mostly  in 
the  Central  and  Western  states.  During  the  same  period 
organizations  of  farmers,  known  as  Granges,  demanded,  and 
in  some  states  secured,  the  moderation  of  railroad  rates. 

597.  The  Campaign  of  1876.  —  As  the  election  of  1876  ap 
proached,  it  became  evident  that  the  people  were  growing  more 
and  more  to  distrust  the  policy  of  keeping  the  reconstructed 
governments  in  place  by  military  force,  and  that  the  question  of 
interfering  in  local  affairs  in  the  South  would  play  a  large  part 
in  the  campaign.  The  Democrats  were  growing  in  strength, 
while  the  Republicans  were  weakening.  At  their  party  con 
vention,  the  Democrats  nominated  Samuel  J.  Tilde n  of  New 
York  for  President,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana  for 
Vice  President;  while  the  Republicans  placed  in  the  field 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes1  of  Ohio,  and  William  A.  Wheeler  of 
New  York.  It  was  evident  from  the  first  that  the  contest 

i  Born  in  Ohio,  1822;  died,  1893.  Graduated  at  Kenyon  College,  1842; 
practiced  law  at  Fremont,  Ohio;  volunteered  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war, 
and  rose  to  be  brigadier  general ;  was  wounded  at  South  Mountain,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign  of  1864;  congressman, 
1865-1866;  governor  of  Ohio,  1868-1872;  was  elected  governor  on  "honest 
money  "  issue,  after  a  campaign  of  remarkable  spirit, —  a  fact  which  brought 
him  forward  as  candidate  for  President  in  1876 ;  was  nominated  over  Elaine 
and  Bristow  on  the  seventh  ballot,  by  the  Republican  Convention,  and  was 
declared  elected  after  decision  of  the  Electoral  Commission,  March  2,  187G. 


470        THE  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  GRANT,    1869-1877.     [§508 


would  be  a  very  close  one.     The  election  revealed   that   the 
decision  of  the  Electoral  College,  as  the  Presidential  electors 

in  their  collective  capacity 
are  called,  would  turn 
upon  the  manner  in  which 
certain  disputed  returns 
in  Florida,  Louisiana,  Ore 
gon,  and  South  Carolina 
were  decided.  If  these 
states  should  all  be  rep 
resented  in  the  College 
by  Eepublican  electors, 
Hayes  would  have  a  ma 
jority  of  one.  If  from 
a  single  one  of  those 
states  a  Democratic  elector 
should  obtain  a  vote,  the 
election  would  go  to 
Tilden. 

598.  The  Question  in 
Dispute.  —  From  each  of 
the  states  in  dispute,  two 
sets  of  returns  were  pre 
sented  to  Congress,  one  certifying  that  Eepublican,  the  other 
that  Democratic,  electors  had  been  chosen.  In  each  of  the 
Southern  states  there  was  a  returning  board  that  was  recognized 
by  the  government  at  Washington,  to  which  the  results  of  the 
elections  from  various  precincts  were  to  be  reported,  and  whose 
duty  it  was  to  declare  the  result,  which  was  to  be  certified,  by 
the  governor,  to  Congress.  These  boards,  therefore,  had  almost 
unlimited  authority.  In  making  up  the  returns  in  Florida  and 
Louisiana,  they  cast  out  the  vote  of  certain  precincts,  declaring 
that  the  election  had  been  tainted  with  fraud  and  violence. 
This  t"he  Democrats  denied,  and  made  out  returns  of  their  own, 
certifying  that  the  Democratic  electors  had  been  chosen.  In 


RUTHERP'ORD   B.    HAYES. 


§  599]  PARTY   POLITICS.  471 

South  Carolina  there  were  two  sets  of  returns  emanating  from 
two  contending  state  governments.  The  Democrats  claimed 
that  Federal  troops  had  interfered  with  the  results  of  the  elec 
tion.  In  Oregon  the  question  as  to  whether  there  should  be 
three  Republican  electors  or  two 
Republican  and  one  Democratic, 
hinged  on  the  validity  of  a  pro 
test  that  a  postmaster  could  not 
under  the  Constitution  be  an  elec-  IJg^  ' 

tor.  As  the  Republicans  had  a 
majority  in  the  Senate  and  the 
Democrats  in  the  House,  it  was 
evident  there  could  be  no  agree 
ment  on  a  count  of  the  votes. 

599.     Electoral    Commission.  — 

m1  _     .  , .  SAMUEL  J.  TILDEN.I 

The  importance  of  the  question 

caused  great  anxiety  from  November  until  March.  The  result 
involved  not  only  an  entire  change  of  national  policy  with 
regard  to  the  South,  but  also  the  tenure  of  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand  officials.  There  was  talk  of  another  civil  war.  For 
weeks  the  matter  was  debated  in  Congress,  with  no  result. 
As  the  time  for  inauguration  approached,  the  most  temperate 
men  on  both  sides  agreed  upon  an  Electoral  Commission,  to 
whom  the  whole  matter  should  be  submitted  for  decision. 
Such  decision  was  to  be  final,  unless  both  Senate  and  House 
agreed  in  rejecting  it.  The  commission  was  to  consist  of  five 
members  of  the  House  (three  of  them  Democrats),  five  Senators 
(three  of  them  Republicans),  and  five  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  (two  Democrats,  two  Republicans,  and  one  Independent), 
It  turned  out  that  the  only  Independent  member  of  the  Supreme 

iBora  in  NQW  York,  1814;  died,  1886.  Graduated  at  University  of  New 
York;  became  a  prominent  politician  and  corporation  lawyer  in  New  York 
City;  leader  of  New  York  Democrats,  1868;  successfully  opposed  the  Tweed 
"  ring  "  ;  elected  governor,  1874 ;  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Presidency,  1876; 
left  large  sum  to  endow  public  library  of  New  York  City. 


472        THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   GRANT,    1869-1877.     [§  599 

Court,  David  Davis,  resigned  in  order  to  accept  a  seat  in  the 
Senate.  He  therefore  could  not  serve,  and  after  some  delay  a 
Republican  was  put  in  his  place.  All  the  points  in  dispute 
were  ably  presented  and  argued.  A  bare  majority  of  the 
Commission  decided  that  they  could  not  accept  returns  that 
were  not  regularly  certified  to  and  that  they  must  accept 
those  of  the  duly  authorized  returning  boards.  Accordingly, 
the  questions  in  regard  to  each  of  the  states  involved  were  de 
cided  in  favor  of  the  Republicans,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to  seven, 
all  the  Republicans  voting  one  way  and  all  the  Democrats  the 
other.  As  the  Republican  Senate  would  not  vote  to  reject  this 
result,  it  was  conclusive,  and  Hayes  was  declared  elected.  The 
question  was  not  settled,  however,  till  March  2,  two  days  before 
the  inauguration.  The  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  Democrats 
throughout  the  country  was  naturally  intense ;  but  the  de 
cision  was  legal,  and  no  formal  objection  to  it  could  be  made. 
Thus  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were  chosen  by  an  electoral  vote  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty-five,  while  Tilden  and  Hendricks 
received  one  hundred  and  eighty-four.  Nothing  has  ever 
occurred  in  the  history  of  our  government  to  subject  the 
Constitution  to  so  violent  a  strain ;  and  nothing  could  be  more 
creditable  to  the  sense  of  loyalty  on  the  part  of  the  aggrieved 
portion  of  the  people  than  their  peaceful  submission  to  the 
results  of  the  legal  decision.  Recent  opinion  seems  to  be 
favorable  to  the  technical  merits  of  Tilden's  claims,  yet  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  country,  on  the  whole,  profited 
from  the  actual  course  of  events. 


REFERENCES.  —  Grant,  Memoirs,  Vol.  II.  ;  Stan  wood,  Elections,  273- 
344;  Johnston,  Orations,  Vol.  IV.,  296-366,  367-420;  Fiske,  Civil  Gov 
ernment,  261  ;  G.  W.  Curtis,  Orations  (for  reports  in  regard  to  the  progress 
of  Civil  Service  Reform,  these  addresses  are  unequaled)  ;  Andrews,  The 
South  since  the  War ;  Kelley,  The  Old  South  and  the  New;  J.  W.  Bur 
gess,  Reconstruction  and  the  Constitution  (1902).  Allen's  Governor 
Chamberlain"1  s  Administration  in  South  Carolina  is  valuable  as  a  picture 
of  methods  during  the  reconstruction  period.  See  also  bibliographical 
note  to  Chapter  XXXII. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE  ADMINISTRATIONS  OP  HAYES  AND  OF  GARFIELD 
AND  ARTHUR,  1877-1885. 

INDUSTRIAL  PROBLEMS. 

600.  General  Character  of  the  Administration  of  Hayes.  —  The 

administration  of  Hayes  was  one  of  adjustment  to  new  con 
ditions  rather  than  one  of  great  political  innovations.  During 
the  first  half  of  his  term,  the  Democrats  had  a  majority  in  the 
House,  the  Republicans  in  the  Senate ;  during  the  second  half, 
the  Democrats  controlled  both  branches  of  Congress.  By  rea 
son  of  these  facts,  and  of  the  more  or  less  general  feeling  that 
the  President's  title  to  his  position  was  not  perfect,  radical 
legislation  was  impossible,  and  industrial  questions  occupied 
in  the  main  the  attention  of  the  country.  Hayes  himself, 
although  much  harassed  by  difficulties  with  Congress,  wielded 
his  power,  especially  that  of  the  veto,1  in  a  most  credit 
able  manner,  and  surrounded  himself  with,  a  Cabinet  of  good 
advisers. 

601.  Withdrawal  of  Troops  from  the  South.  —  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  President   Hayes's   administration   was  to   order  the 
withdrawal  of  the  United  States  troops  from  the  South,  where 
they  had  been  stationed  for  the  protection  of  the  reconstructed 
governments.     The  way  for  this  movement  had  been  prepared 
during  the  last  days  of  Grant's  administration  ;  for  it  had  come 

1  For  example,  he  showed  great  firmness  in  his  vetoes  during  the  extra 
session  of  1879,  when  the  Democratic  Congress  tried  to  sweep  away  recon 
struction  legislation  by  the  use  of  "riders,"  or  incongruous  provisions, 
attached  to  appropriation  bills.  He  also  resisted  Congressional  dictation  in 
the  matter  of  appointments,  and  supported  the  cause  of  Civil  Service  reform. 

473 


474         THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF    HAYES,    1877-1881.      [§602 

to  be  seen  that  good  order  could  not  be  reestablished  by  force. 
Democrats  replaced  Republicans  in  state  offices,  and  every 
where  the  supremacy  of  the  white  people  of  the  South  was  at 
once  established.  It  was  a  practical  confession  that  the 
methods  of  reconstruction  adopted  by  Congress  had  not  been 
successful.  From  this  time  forward  the  South  was  able  to 
give  attention  to  industrial  recuperation. 

602.  Disorders  and  Riots. — During  1877,  the  first  year  of 
Hayes's  administration,  railroad  strikes  were  common.    Freight 
charges  were  being  reduced,  and  the  roads,  finding  it  impos 
sible  to  maintain  the  old  rate  of  wages,  attempted  to  IOWCT  the 
price  of  labor.     Thousands  refused  to  work  at  the  new  rates, 
and  some  of  the  workmen  would  not  allow  trains  to  run.     At 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Baltimore  there  were  riots,  in  which 
several  persons  were  killed ;    but  the  most  serious  outbreak 
occurred  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  where  nearly  a  hundred 
lives  were  lost  and  the  destruction  of  property  amounted  to 
about  three  million  dollars.     Pennsylvania  had  several  years 
before  suffered  from  the  outrages  of  a  secret  society  of  miners 
known  as  the  "Molly  McGuires,"  which  was  not  finally  put 
down  until  1875. 

603.  Chinese  Immigration. — For  the  construction  of  the  Pacific 
railroads,  large  numbers  of  Chinese  laborers  had  been  induced 
to  come  to  the  Pacific  coast.     These  immigrants  did  not  become 
citizens,  and  consequently  did  not  vote.     The  fact  that  they 
could  live  more  cheaply,  and  therefore  work  for  less  wages, 
than   the  white   laborers,  aroused  great   opposition   to   their 
presence,  and  riots  became  common.     In  response  to  this  out 
cry,  in  1880  a  treaty  was  negotiated  with  China,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  Chinese  immigration  might  be  stopped  by  the 
United  States  government.     This  was  followed,  in  1882,  by  an 
Act  of  Congress  forbidding  such  immigration  for  ten  years. 
The  law  was  imperfectly  drawn,  however,  and  its  principal 
effect  was  to  prevent  the  Chinese  from  coming  in  large  masses. 
More  stringent  measures  were  enacted  later  (§  624). 


§605]  FINANCIAL  PROBLEMS.  475 

FINANCIAL  PROBLEMS. 

604.  Relations  of  Gold  and  Silver.  —  Public  opinion  during 
Hayes's  term  was  seriously  agitated  in  regard  to  the  relations 
of  silver  and  gold.     In  1873,  during  Grant's  administration,  a 
law  had  been  passed,  in  consequence  of  a  general  advance  in 
the  price  of  silver,  discontinuing  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars, 
which  had  long  been  practically  out  of  circulation.     But  by 
1878  the  price  of  the  metal  had  fallen  on  account  of  the  large 
output  of  the  Western  mines,  and  Congress  decided  to  remone- 
tize  silver  by  providing  that  a  certain  amount  should  be  pur 
chased  and  coined  each  month.     An  act  was  passed,  known  as 
the  "  Bland- Allison  Bill,"  which  provided  for  the  purchase  and 
coinage  into  dollars  of  not  less  than  two  million,  nor  more  than 
four  million,  dollars'  worth  of  silver  each  month.     The  coining 
was  to  be  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  to  one ;  that  is  to  say,  sixteen 
pounds  of  silver  was  to  be  coined  into  the  same  number  of  dollars 
as  one  pound  of  gold.     As  so  much  silver  in  circulation  would 
prove  inconvenient,  Congress  provided  for  depositing  the  silver 
thus   coined  in  the  Treasury  and  issuing  silver  certificates  as 
currency  in  its  place.    This  legislation,  which  was  passed  over 
the  President's  veto  and  was  regarded  by  economists  as  unsound, 
stimulated  the  production  of  silver  and  greatly  encouraged  the 
new  mining  industries  in  Colorado,  Nevada,  and  the  other  states 
of  the  far  West. 

605.  Resumption  of  Specie  Payments.  —  Ever  since  the  first 
year  of  the  war,  the  paper  money   which  has   already  been 
described  (§  596)  had  been  the  only  currency  in  common  use. 
Greenbacks  and  national  bank  notes  had  been  made  legal  tender 
for  most  purposes;  but  the  Supreme  Court  had  at  one  time 
decided  against,  and  at  another  time  in  favor  of,  the  power  of 
Congress  to  make  a  legal  tender  out  of  paper  not  redeemable 
in  coin.     In  consequence  there  was  a  feeling  of  uncertainty 
with  regard  to  the  value  of  the  currency  in  which  business  was 
transacted,  and  this  was  harmful  to  the  commercial  interests 
of  the  country.     The  paper  had  depreciated  in  value  as  coin- 


476         THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   HAYES,    1877-1881.      [§  606 

pared  with  gold,  and  many  people  urged  that  the  government 
should  pay  its  debts  in  it.  This  hurt  the  national  credit. 
Accordingly,  in  January,  1875,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for 
resumption  of  specie  payments  on  the  1st  of  January,  1879. 
In  other  words,  after  the  latter  date,  any  person  could  get 
coin  from  the  Treasury  in  exchange  for  the  paper  he  offered. 
In  the  course  of  the  four  intervening  years,  the  government 
accumulated  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  Treasury 
and  prepared  itself  to  meet  such  demands  as  might  be  made. 
It  happened,  however,  as  it  usually  does  under  similar  condi 
tions  with  local  banks,  that  so  long  as  the  people  knew  that 
the  government  was  able  and  ready  to  pay,  they  had  no  desire 
for  actual  payment.  They  at  once  settled  into  the  belief  that 
paper  was  more  convenient  than  coin.  The  chief  credit  for 
this  financial  legislation  belongs  to  John  Sherman,  brother  of 
the  famous  general,  who  long  represented  Ohio  in  the  Senate, 
and  at  the  time  of  resumption  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

POLITICAL   AFFAIRS. 

606.  Causes  of  Dissatisfaction.  —  Though  President  Hayes's 
administration  was  free  from  scandals  and  was  one  of  uniform 
excellence,  it  presented  very  few  characteristics  that  appealed 
to  the  enthusiastic   admiration  of  the  people.     Nor  was  the 
President  popular  with  the  political  managers,  who  thought 
that  greater  energy  on  his  part  would  have  secured  such  popu 
lar  favor  as  to  overcome  the  Democratic  majority  in  Congress. 
As  the  time  for  the  next  Republican  nomination  drew  near, 
it  became  evident,  therefore,  that  Hayes,  who  did  not  seek  a 
second  term,  would  not  be  renominated. 

607.  Nomination  and  Election  of  Garfield  and  Arthur.— The 
Republican  Convention,  which  met  at  Chicago  in  1880,  after  a 
long  struggle  between  the  supporters  of  J.  G.  Elaine  and  of 
General  Grant,  nominated,  as  a  compromise,  James  A.  Garfield 
of  Ohio  for  President,  and  Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York 
for  Vice  President.    Garfield,  having  distinguished  himself  in 


607] 


POLITICAL   AFFAIRS. 


477 


military  service  and  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  had 
recently  been  elected  to  the  Senate.  Arthur,  without  legislative 
experience,  had  been  Collector  of  the  Port  of  New  York.  The 
Democrats  met  at  Cincinnati,  and  nominated  General  Winfield 
S.  Hancock 1  of  Pennsylvania 
for  President,  and  William 
H.  English  of  Indiana  for 
Vice  President.  There  was 
no  such  heated  contest  for 
the  nominations  as  there  had 
been  among  the  Republicans, 
for  the  general  prosperity  of 
the  country  indicated  that  the 
party  in  power  would  not  be 
turned  out.  This  forecast 
proved  to  be  correct,  for  at 
the  election  Garfield  and 
Arthur  received  two  hundred 
and  fourteen  electoral  votes, 
while  Hancock  and  English 
received  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five.  The  defeated  can 
didates  received  their  main  vote  from  what  began  to  be  called 
"the  Solid  South," — that  is  to  say,  not  only  the  states  that 
had  seceded,  but  all  those  in  which  slavery  had  existed  at  the 
time  of  the  war.  Until  the  election  of  1896,  this  solid  mass  of 
electoral  votes  went  to  Democratic  candidates. 


GENERAL  WINFIELD  S.  HANCOCK. 


1  Born  in  Pennsylvania,  1824;  died,  1886.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1844; 
fought  gallantly  in  Mexican  War;  appointed  brigadier  general  of  volunteers 
in  1861 ;  commanded  under  McClellan  in  the  Peninsula  Campaign ;  distin 
guished  himself  at  South  Mountain,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors- 
ville,  and  Gettysburg ;  won  the  high  praise  of  Grant  for  his  services  in  the 
Wilderness,  at  Spottsylvania,  Cold  Harbor,  and  Petersburg;  was  made  a 
major  general  in  the  regular  army  in  1866 ;  Democratic  candidate  for  Presi 
dent  in  1880.  Hancock  was  a  gallant  commander  throughout  the  war,  and 
Grant  spoke  of  him  as  "  the  most  conspicuous  of  those  general  officers  who 
never  held  a  separate  command." 


478 


GARFIELD   AND   ARTHUR,    1881-1885. 


[§608 


608.  Factions  in  the  Republican  Party.  —  Even  before  the 
nomination  of  Garfield l  and  Arthur,  it  was  evident  that  the 
Bepublican  party  was  inclined  to  divide  into  two  factional 
sections.  The  questions  at  issue  related  partly  to  the  method 

of  appointing  the 
minor  government 
officers  and  partly 
to  the  attitude  of 
the  party  toward 
the  South.  In  gen 
eral,  those  Repub 
licans  who  were 
popularly  known 
as  "  Stalwarts  " 
advocated  a  more 
rigorous  policy 
toward  the  South 
than  Hayes  had 
pursued;  while  the 
other  division  of 
the  party,  con 
temptuously  called 
"Half-breeds"  by 


JAMES  A.  GARFIELD. 


their  opponents, 
supported  the  ad 
ministration  of  Hayes  and  approved  of  the  withdrawal  of  troops. 
The  "  Half-breeds,"  moreover,  advocated  a  reform  of  the  Civil 
Service,  while  the  "Stalwarts"  insisted  that  the  offices  should 


iBorn  in  Ohio,  1831;  died,  1881.  Graduated  at  Williams  College,  1856; 
became  president  of  Hiram  College  in  1857;  volunteered,  and  was  appointed 
lieutenant  colonel  in  1861 ;  routed  Confederates  at  Middle  Creek,  January  10, 
1862 ;  was  made  brigadier  general  and  served  at  Shiloh ;  was  chief  of  staff  of 
Rosecrans  and  rendered  such  service  as  to  be  made  major  general  after  Chicka- 
mauga ;  having  already  been  elected  member  of  Congress,  he  took  his  seat  in 
December,  1863 ;  was  a  leading  member  and  debater  till  his  election  to  the 
Senate  in  1880 ;  was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  for  President  on  the  thirty- 
sixth  ballot  in  1880;  assassinated,  1881. 


§609]  POLITICAL  AFFAIRS.  479 

be  given  to  those  who  had  consistently  supported  the  party. 
Garfield  was  supposed  to  represent  the  "Half-breeds,"  while 
Arthur  was  nominated  as  a  representative  of  the  "  Stalwarts." 
The  leader  of  the  latter  was  Senator  Eoscoe  Conkling  of  New 
York,  a  brilliant  orator,  notorious  for  the  violence  of  his 
partisanship.  Conkling  had  been  a  stanch  supporter  of  General 
Grant  for  the  nomination  in  1880;  but,  although  he  helped 
Garfield  in  the  canvass  preceding  the  latter's  election,  he  was 
soon  at  odds  with  the  new  administration  on  the  question  of 
appointments.  He  did  not  like  the  selection  of  Elaine  for 
Secretary  of  State,  and  was  aggrieved  by  other  selections  of 
Cabinet  advisers  made  by  the  new  President.  Garfield  was 
amply  justified  in  resisting  dictation  from  Conkling  and  other 
leaders  with  regard  to  appointments,  for  the  platform  on  which 
he  was  nominated  had  called  for  a  "thorough,  radical,  and 
complete  reform  of  the  Civil  Service."  Moreover,  he  had  been 
nominated  without  having  been  announced  as  a  candidate  in 
advance  of  the  nomination,  and  had  made  few,  if  any,  promises 
to  bestow  offices  on  special  men. 

609.  Strife  for  Offices :  Assassination  of  Garfield.  —  Soon  after 
the  election,  the  strife  for  offices  became  unusually  intense. 
Many  of  the  senators,  acting  in  accordance  with  former  custom, 
continued  to  insist  upon  practically  dictating  who  should  be 
appointed  within  their  own  states;  but  the  President  continued 
to  resist  them.  When  he  refused  to  appoint  as  Collector  of 
the  Port  of  New  York  the  candidate  whom  Senators  Conkling 
and  Platt  had  urged  for  the  place,  these  "Stalwarts"  were 
intensely  indignant  and  resigned  their  seats  in  the  Senate. 
The  New  York  legislature  expressed  its  disapproval  of  their 
course,  by  refusing  to  reelect  them.1  The  result  was  not  a 
little  agitation  and  bitterness  between  the  two  factions,  which 
perhaps  was  partly  responsible  for  the  assassination  of  the 

1  Conkling  had  previously  attacked  Garfield  in  scathing  speeches.  He  did 
not  reenter  public  life.  He  died  from  exposure  to  the  great  "blizzard"  of 
1888.  Platt  later  returned  to  the  Senate, 


480 


GARFIELD   AND   ARTHUR,    1881-1885. 


[§610 


President  by  a  fanatic 
named  Charles  J.  Guiteau, 
to  whom  an  office  had 
been  refused.  Garfield 
was  shot  on  the  2d  of  July, 
1881,  just  as  he  was  about 
to  take  a  train  at  the  Penn 
sylvania  Railroad  station 
in  Washington.  After 
lingering  in  great  pain, 
but  with  heroic  endurance, 
for  nearly  three  months, 
he  died,  September  19,  at 
Elberon,  New  Jersey. 
His  death  called  forth 
sincere  expressions  of 
sympathy  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Arthur 1 
was  at  once  sworn  in  as 
President.  Guiteau,  after 
a  long  trial,  was  adjudged 
not  insane,  but  responsible  for  his  act,  and  was  hanged. 


CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR. 


CHIEF   FEATURES   OF  ARTHUR'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

610.  Success  of  Arthur.  —  The  effect  of  the  assassination  was 
everywhere  deeply  felt  throughout  the  country,  and  the  im 
pression  was  almost  universal  that  in  the  death  of  Garfield 

i  Born  in  Vermont,  1830;  died,  1886.  Graduated  at  Union  College,  1848; 
studied  and  practiced  law  in  New  York  City ;  as  member  of  Governor  Mor 
gan's  staff  was  of  great  service  as  quartermaster,  engineer  in  chief,  and 
inspector  general  during  the  Civil  War ;  was  appointed  Collector  of  the  Port 
of  New  York,  1871 ;  was  actively  engaged  in  New  York  politics  while  he  held 
his  position  and  was  removed  by  Hayes  in  1878  for  alleged  excessive  partisan 
ship  ;  was  nominated  for  Vice  President  with  Garfield  in  1880 ;  succeeded  to 
the  Presidency  in  1881 ;  was  a  candidate  for  renominatiou  in  1884,  but  was 
defeated  by  Elaine. 


§611]  ARTHUR'S  ADMINISTRATION.  481 

the  nation  had  suffered  an  irreparable  loss.  President  Arthur, 
however,  at  once  showed  that  he  was  a  man  of  firmness,  intelli 
gence,  and  good  judgment,  fully  capable  of  filling  satisfactorily 
his  great  office.  He  chose  a  good  Cabinet,  his  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  William  E.  Chandler,  being  especially  energetic  in  in 
creasing  the  efficiency  of  that  branch  of  the  service.  Arthur's 
recommendations  to  Congress  were  judicious,  and  in  the  case 
of  Civil  Service  legislation,  the  need  for  which  had  been  em 
phasized  by  President  Garfield's  assassination,  particularly 
important  (§  616). 


BROOKLYN  BRIDGE. 

611.  Feats  of  Engineering.  —  Arthur's  administration  was 
marked  by  several  great  triumphs  of  engineering.  In  1881  the 
completion  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  was  celebrated.  This 
structure,  the  main  avenue  of  traffic  between  New  York  and 
Brooklyn,  and  the  longest  and  boldest  suspension  bridge  in 
the  world,  was  designed  in  1869  by  John  A.  Eoebling,  an 
engineer  who  had  designed  and  constructed  the  first  sus 
pension  bridge  across  Niagara  Kiver  below  the  Falls.  The 
Washington  monument  (dedicated  in  1885),  the  highest  stone 
structure  in  the  world,  was  also  completed  during  Arthur's 
administration,  after  great  delay  and  certain  difficulties  of  con 
struction  which  were  finally  obviated  by  engineering  skill. 
The  monument  is  an  obelisk  of  white  marble,  five  hundred 


482  GABF1ELD   AND   ARTHUR,   1881-1885.  [§612 

and  fifty-five  feet  high,  and  is  impressive  in  its  simple  gran 
deur.1 

612.  Condition  of  the  Lower  Mississippi. —  About  this  time 
the  attention  of  the  country  was  called  to  the  difficulty  of  pro 
tecting  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  against 
the  dangers  of  inundation.     The  waters  of  the  Mississippi  and 
of  the  Missouri  bring  down  enormous  amounts  of  earth,  which 
are  deposited,  partly  in  the  bottom  of  the  former  river  and 
partly  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     This  continuous  deposit  gradu 
ally  raises  the  channel,  so  that,  in  places,  the  bed  of  the  river 
is  higher  than  the  surrounding  country.     It  also  fills  up  the 
mouth  of  the  stream  and  obstructs  navigation.     During  the 
administration  of  Hayes  a  system  of  jetties,  consisting  of  thou 
sands  of  bundles  of  fagots,  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of 
narrowing  the  channel,  and  by  so  doing,  increasing  the  current 
so  that  the  silt  or  mud  might  be  carried  far  out  into  the  Gulf. 
This  plan  was  due  to  Engineer  James  B.  Eads,  who  had  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  the  construction  of  ironclads  during  the 
war  and  of  the  great  steel  arch  bridge  across  the  river  at  St.  Louis. 
The  jetty  system  was  temporarily  successful,  but  it  did  not 
prevent  the  gradual  rising  of   the  river  bed  and  consequent 
inundations.     In  the  first  year  of  Arthur's  administration,  as 
many  as  a  hundred  thousand  people  were  driven  from  their 
homes  and  vast  amounts  of  property  were  destroyed. 

613.  Notable  Events. —  In  1881  the  nation  celebrated  with  a 
great  naval  display  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  sur 
render  of  the  British  at  Yorktown.     In  recognition  of  the 
country's  friendship  for  Great  Britain,  President  Arthur,  with 
characteristic   tact,  ordered  at   the  end  of  the  ceremonies  a 
national  salute  to  the  British  flag.    In  1884  a  World's  Industrial 
and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  was  held  at  New  Orleans, 
which  revealed  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  country  at 

1  Congress  had  voted  to  erect  a  suitable  memorial  to  Washington  the  very 
year  of  his  death ;  but  no  appropriation  was  available,  and  even  the  corner 
stone  was  not  laid  until  1848. 


§  615]  POLITICAL   EVENTS.  483 

large  and  of  the  South  in  particular.  The  years  1881-1884 
were  also  notable  for  brave  Arctic  explorations  conducted  by 
Lieutenant  A.  W.  Greely. 

POLITICAL    EVENTS. 

614.  Anti-Polygamy  Law. — For  many  years  polygamy  among 
the  Mormons  had  given  offense  to  a  vast  majority  of  the  people 
of  the  country.     The  practice  had  been  supposed  to  be  so  essen 
tially  a  part  of  the  Mormon  religious  system  that  Congress  had 
hesitated  to  interfere  with  it.    In  1882,  however,  Senator  George 
F.  Edmunds  of  Vermont  succeeded  in  carrying  through  Con 
gress  a  law  which  repealed  the  charter  of  the  Mormon  church, 
made  polygamy  criminal  in  any  territory  of  the  United  States, 
and  deprived  of  the  elective  franchise  any  persons  who  should 
refuse  to  take  the  oath  to  obey  the  stringent  provisions  of 
the  act. 

615.  Tariff   Commission.  —  The   tariff  and  internal  revenue 
laws,  enacted  in  1862,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  war  income 
(§§  456,  457),  produced  so  large  an  income  that  the  national 
debt  was  greatly  reduced  and  a  large  surplus  accumulated  in  the 
Treasury.     This  surplus  could  not  be  used  to  pay  the  debt, 
because  the  latter  had  been  refunded,  —  that  is,  loosely  speak 
ing,  readjusted  on  subsequent  borrowing  at  a  lower  rate  of 
interest  than  was  paid  when  the  debt  was  first  incurred,  —  and 
the  new  obligations  had  not  yet  fallen  due.     It  was  therefore 
deemed  desirable  to  reduce  the  income  by  a  modification  of  the 
tariff.     As  questions  of  protection  and  free  trade  were  not  the 
chief  motives  of  the  change,  it  was  decided  to  appoint  a  Tariff 
commission  of  business  men  to  study  the  matter  and  report  a 
suitable  bill  to  Congress.    On  the  basis  of  the  recommendations 
of  the  Commission,  a  law  was  framed  and  passed  in  1883;  but 
it  failed  to  diminish  the  income,  and  the  accumulations  in  the 
Treasury  went  on  as  rapidly  as  before.     It  was  thought,  how 
ever,  that  the  Commission  had  been  influenced  too  much  by  the 
urgent  recommendations  of  the  protectionists.    The  final  action 


484  GARFIELD  AND  ARTHUR,    1881-1885.  [§  616 

was  regarded  by  Democrats  and  by  advocates  of  free  trade  as 
amounting  to  excessive  taxation,  and  so  an  active  agitation 
was  begun  in  favor  of  a  more  liberal  tariff  law  (§  627). 

616.  Condition  of  the  Civil  Service. — The  murder  of  Gar  field 
called  attention  anew  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  Civil  Service. 
It  was  evident  that  the  number  of  appointments  to  be  made 
had  become  so  great  that  the  President  was  obliged  to  give  too 
much  of  his  time  to  the  subject,  and  even  then  thousands  of 
offices  had  to  be  bestowed  on  the  demand  of  politicians  who 
showed  little  sense  of  responsibility  in  making  their  recom 
mendations.     Congress,  therefore,  in  1883,  revived  the  Civil 
Service  question  that  had  been  dropped  in  the  time  of  Presi 
dent  Grant,  and  the  so-called  "Pendleton  Bill/7  supported  by 
Senator  George  H.  Pendleton  of  Ohio,  was  enacted.     Accord 
ing  to  this  law,  a  large  number  of  subordinate  appointments 
were  to  be  made  by  the  President  from  those  candidates  who 
had  been  most  successful  in  competitive  examinations.     These 
examinations  were  to  be  held  by  a  Board  of  Commissioners, 
duly  provided  by  Congress  for  the  purpose.     This  method  had 
been  very  successful  in  other  countries  and  had  been  approved 
and  encouraged  by  Grant,  Hayes,  and  Garfield.      Under  the 
act  a  Commission  was  appointed,  which  has  been  continued  and 
has  rendered  great  service  to  the  country. 

617.  Prosperity  during  Arthur's  Administration.1  —  The  coun 
try  during  Arthur's  administration  passed  through  a  period  of 
prosperity,  which,  up  to  that  time,  was  unexampled.     Agricul 
ture,  trade,  and  manufactures  everywhere  flourished.    Laborers 
found  abundant  employment.     The  South  had,  for  the  first  time 

1  Arthur's  administration  was  not  marked  by  foreign  complications  of  im 
portance,  although  during  the  period  efforts  continued  to  be  made  to  secure 
from  Great  Britain  some  modification  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  (§  401), 
since  trade  with  South  America  was  becoming  more  and  more  valuable  and 
the  construction  of  an  Isthmian  Canal  controlled  by  the  United  States  was 
considered  essential.  In  domestic  affairs  it  may  be  noted  that  President 
Arthur  showed  firmness  in  vetoing  a  bill  restricting  Chinese  immigration, 
after  which  a  less  stringent  one  was  passed. 


§  618]  THE   PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN   OF  1884.  485 

since  the  war,  become  somewhat  prosperous.  Free  labor  was 
proving  more  profitable  than  slave  labor,  and  new  industries  of 
various  kinds  began  to  spring  up  in  all  parts  of  the  Southern 
states.  Manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  which,  up  to  the  time 
of  the  war,  had  flourished  only  in  the  North,  now  made  a  be 
ginning  in  the  South.  Industrial  expositions  showed  that  a 
New  South  had  come  into  existence.  But  in  some  Southern 
states,  notably  Virginia,  where  there  was  great  agitation  for  the 
adjustment  of  the  state  debt,  politics  were  still  in  a  bad  condi 
tion.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  agitation  on  the  part  of  more  or  less 
shiftless  citizens,  not  only  against  Chinese  immigration  but  also 
against  the  moneyed  classes,  —  known  from  its  leader,  Dennis 
Kearney,  as  Kearneyism,  —  was  quieting  down,  and  the  law 
lessness  of  the  Middle  West,  represented  by  the  crimes  of  Jesse 
James  and  his  fellow  train  robbers,  was  finally  suppressed. 
Toward  the  end  of  Arthur's  administration  much  attention 
was  called  to  the  growth  of  corporations.  In  1884  an  "  Anti- 
Monopoly"  party  was  organized,  and  General  Benjamin  F. 
Butler  was  nominated  for  President. 

THE  PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN  OF  1884. 
618.  Demands  for  Reform. — As  the  time  for  the  election  of 
1884  approached,  it  was  evident  that  demands  for  further  Civil 
Service  improvement  and  for  tariff  reform  were  to  play  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  campaign.  Many  Republicans  insisted 
upon  the  selection  of  candidates  who  would  support  measures 
of  reform,  and  threatened,  in  case  such  nominations  should  not 
be  made,  to  vote  for  the  Democratic  candidates.  Such  advo 
cates  of  reform  called  themselves  "Independents";  but  they 
were  stigmatized  by  their  enemies  as  "Mugwumps."1  These 
Independent  voters  proved  to  be  sufficiently  numerous  to  decide 
the  coming  election. 

1  The  term  "  Mugwump  "  is  a  Massachusetts  Indian  word  meaning  a  big  or 
important  man.  It  was  applied  as  a  term  of  reproach,  indicating  that  those 
who  received  it  set  themselves  up  to  be  better  or  greater  than  the  majority  of 
their  party. 


486 


GARFIELD  AND  ARTHUR,    1881-1885. 


[§619 


619.  Election  of  Cleveland —  The  Republican  Convention  met 
at  Chicago  and  nominated  James  Gillespie  Elaine1  of  Maine 
for  President,  and  General  John  A.  Logan  of  Illinois  for  Vice 
President.  Elaine  had  long  been  one  of  the  most  prominent 

men  in  the  Republican  party. 
Possessed  of  much  personal 
charm,  he  enjoyed  great  popu 
larity  with  those  with  whom 
he  came  into  personal  contact. 
For  six  years  he  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives,  and  when  the  Demo 
crats  secured  a  majority  in  the 
House,  he  became  the  brilliant 
leader  of  the  Republicans  on 
the  floor.  While  he  occupied 
this  position,  however,  it  be 
gan  to  be  whispered  that  his 
career  was  not  free  from  acts 
involving  corrupt  motives. 
An  investigation  followed  in 
regard  to  his  connection  with 

the  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  Railroad  and  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad  Company.  The  evidence  had  a  serious 
effect  upon  his  political  prospects.  Many  Republicans,  be 
lieving  him  not  free  from  the  taint  of  corruption,  were  ready 
from  the  time  of  his  nomination  to  vote  against  him.  The 

iBorn  in  Pennsylvania,  1830;  died,  1893.  Graduated  from  Washington 
College  (Pennsylvania),  1847;  taught  school  in  Kentucky  and  Pennsylvania; 
removed  to  Augusta,  Maine,  1854;  edited  the  Kennebec  Journal  and  entered 
politics ;  in  Maine  legislature,  1858-1862 ;  in  Congress,  1862-1876,  where  he  was 
prominent  in  reconstruction  and  other  legislation,  and  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  from  1869-1875 ;  charged  with  corruption  in  1876 ;  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  Presidency,  1876,  and  in  the  same  year  appointed  to  the  Senate;  failed  to 
obtain  Kepublican  nomination  for  President,  1880;  Secretary  of  State,  March 
to  December,  1881 ;  in  retirement  from  public  life,  wrote  his  Twenty  Years  of 
Congress  (Vol.  I.,  1884);  nominated  for  President  and  defeated,  1884;  Secre 
tary  of  State,  1889-1892. 


JAMES  G.  ELAINE. 


§  619]          THE  PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN  OF  1884.  487 

Democrats,  who  also  convened  at  Chicago,  nominated,  for 
President,  Grover  Cleveland,1  who  had  recently  shown  great 
strength  as  governor  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks 
of  Indiana  for  Vice  President.  The  campaign  was  an  un 
usually  spirited  one,  full  of  unseemly  personalities.  Some  of 
the  Eeform  Eepublicans  finally  made  up  their  minds  to  support 
Elaine;  but  others,  like  George  William  Curtis,  advocated 
Cleveland's  election.  Elaine's  cause  was  greatly  injured  by 
the  extravagant  attacks  made  upon  the  Democrats  by  some  of 
his  supporters.  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  were  finally  elected 
by  an  electoral  vote  of  two  hundred  and  nineteen  against  one 
hundred  and  eighty-two.  The  election  was  decided  by  the 
thirty-five  electoral  votes  of  New  York,  secured  by  a  majority 
of  less  than  twelve  hundred.  The  vote  showed  that  Elaine  was 
defeated  by  those  Independent  Eepublicans  who  distrusted  his 
political  integrity. 


REFERENCES.  —  Comparatively  few  books  have  been  devoted  specifically 
to  the  history  of  the  period  covered  by  this  chapter,  and  general  works  give 
such  recent  events  scanty  space.  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century,  and 
Channing  and  Hart's  Guide^  §  25,  may  be  consulted  with  profit.  See,  also, 
E.  Cary,  George  William  Curtis  ("American  Men  of  Letters");  A.  R. 
Conkling,  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Roscoe  Conkling ;  S.  S.  Cox,  Union, 
Disunion,  Eeunion;  J.  A.  Garfield,  Works  (2  vols.);  John  Sherman, 
Recollections  of  Forty  Tears;  J.  G.  Elaine,  Twenty  Years  of  Congress  (2 
vols.)  ;  G.  W.  Curtis,  Orations  and  Addresses  (3  vols.);  J.  Bigelow,  Samuel 
J.  Tilden,  his  Writings  and  Speeches  (2  vols.);  Stan  wood's  History  of 
Presidential  Elections,  303-344 ;  and  the  periodical  literature  of  the  time. 

1  Born  in  New  Jersey,  1837.  Studied  law  and  entered  practice  at  Buffalo, 
New  York;  served  as  sheriff,  and  became  mayor  on  a  "reform"  ticket  in 
1881 ;  his  efficient  administration  attracted  so  much  attention  that  he  received 
the  Democratic  nomination  for  governor  in  1882 ;  was  elected  by  the  enormous 
majority  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  thousand;  was  so  commended  for 
his  administration  that  in  1884  he  received  the  Democratic  nomination  for 
President;  was  elected  over  Elaine;  became  prominent,  while  President,  as  a 
supporter  of  Civil  Service  reform,  "  hard  money,"  and  tariff  reform ;  was 
defeated  by  Harrison  on  the  tariff  issue  in  1888;  was  nominated  a  third 
time  in  1892,  and  reflected  by  a  large  majority ;  retired  to  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  at  the  close  of  his  term;  died,  greatly  honored,  1908. 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND,   1885-1889. 
IMPORTANT  MEASURES  AND   REFORMS. 

620.  Character  of  the  Administration.  —  Ever  since  Grant's 
administrations  the  strength  of  the  two  great  political  parties 
had  been  tending  more  and  more  to  an  equality.  When  Cleve 
land  entered  upon  his  duties  as  President,  the  Democrats  had  a 
small  majority  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Republicans 
still  had  a  majority  in  the  Senate.  Legislation,  therefore,  was 
for  the  most  part  confined  to  non-partisan  measures.  Cleveland 
surrounded  himself  with  a  good  group  of  Cabinet  advisers,  in 
which  the  South  was  allowed  proportionate  representation.1 
The  latter  fact,  together  with  his  policy  of  vetoing  private  pen 
sion  bills,  rendered  the  President  unpopular  with  many  Union 
veterans ;  but  his  general  firmness  and  honesty  as  an  executive 
were  admitted  by  impartial  observers.  He  was  placed,  however, 
in  the  unfortunate  situation  of  having  to  offend  either  the 
Democrats,  who  demanded  that  all  offices  should  be  taken  away 
from  Republican  incumbents  and  given  to  Democrats,  or  the 
Independents,  who  thought  that  removals  from  office  should  be 
made  only  in  the  case  of  unworthy  incumbents.  Cleveland 
extended  Civil  Service  reform,  but  at  the  same  time  made  some 
removals  from  office  apparently  on  partisan  grounds.  Thus 
he  offended  both  Democratic  politicians  and  Independent  re- 

1  That  the  North  and  South  were  forgetting  their  differences  was  proved 
during  Cleveland's  administration  in  two  striking  ways.  In  1885  ex-Confeder 
ate  generals  attended  Grant's  funeral;  the  next  year,  the  sufferings  of  the 
people  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  on  account  of  the  earthquake  that  so 
damaged  the  city,  called  forth  great  sympathy  and  help  from  the  people  of  the 
North  and  West. 

488 


621] 


IMPORTANT  MEASURES  AND  REFORMS. 


489 


formers ;  and  His  administration,  while  on  the  whole  successful, 
was  not  characterized  by  thorough  harmony. 

621.  The  Australian  Ballot.  —  Cleveland's  first  administration 
was  not  only  marked  by  the  improvement  in  the  Civil  Service 
consequent  upon 
the  President's  ex 
tending  the  num 
ber  of  offices  to  be 
filled  by  persons 
who  had  passed 
competitive  exam 
inations,  but  was 
also  distinguished 
by  a  reform  which 
helped  greatly  to 
purify  elections. 
In  order  to  secure 
the  secret  voting 
necessary  to  les 
sen  intimidation 
and  bribery  of 
voters,  the  Aus 
tralian  ballot  was 
adopted  in  several 
of  the  states.  The 
essential  principle 
of  this  ballot  is 

that  all  the  candidates'  names  shall  be  printed  upon  a  single 
sheet  of  paper,  and  that  the  voter,  taking  this  official  paper 
from  the  supervisor  of  the  election,  shall,  in  a  booth  by  him 
self,  secretly  mark  the  name  of  the  person  or  persons  for  whom 
he  votes,  and  then,  after  folding  the  ballot,  return  it  to  the 
officer  to  be  inserted  in  the  ballot  box.  The  method  met  with 
popular  approval  and  was  adopted,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
in  nearly  all  the  states. 


GROVER  CLEVELAND. 


490        ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND,    1885-1889.        [§622 

622.  The  Presidential  Succession  Act,  and  the  Electoral  Count 
Act.  —  Two  measures  intended  to  obviate  possible  complica 
tions  in  Presidential  elections  were  adopted  during  this  admin 
istration.     Before  1886  there  was  no  law  to  determine  how  the 
Presidency  -should  be  filled  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of 
the  President,  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Acting  President  of 
the  Senate.1     It  was  now  determined  by  statute  that  the  suc 
cession  should  pass  from  the  Vice  President  to  the  members 
of  the  Cabinet,  eligible  in  the  order  in  which  the  several  de 
partments  were  created,  beginning  with  the  Secretary  of  State. 
The  following  year  (1887)  the  Electoral  Count  Act  determined 
that  disputes  relating  to  the  validity  of  electoral  votes  should 
be  settled  by  state  tribunals. 

623.  Interstate  Commerce  -Act.  —  The  rapid  growth  of  indi 
vidual  and  corporate  wealth  in  the  country  led  to  an  impression 
on  the  part  of  very  many  people  that  the  profits  of  industry 
were  not  fairly  distributed.    This  feeling  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  multiplication  of  corporations  and  trusts.      Railways 
were  everywhere  tending  to  combine  into  great  lines  and  to 
enter  into  agreements  that  were  supposed  to  endanger  compe 
tition  and  sometimes  even  to  prevent  it.     It  was  also  in  their 
power  to  make  such  discriminating  rates  for  freight  between  dif 
ferent  manufacturing  corporations  and  between  different  towns 
and  cities  as  to  favor  some  and   injure  others.     This  condi 
tion  led  to  strikes  and  riots  at  various  points,  and  it  became 
evident  to  the  leaders  of  both  parties  that  remedial  legislation 
was  called  for.     The  result  was  the  passing  of  an  act  for  the 
better  regulation  of   Interstate  Commerce.     Railroads  exclu 
sively  within  an  individual  state  could  not,  under  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States,  be  interfered  with ;  but  the  act 
forbade  discriminating  rates  and  the  pooling  of  earnings  and 
rates  on   roads   running  partly  in   one   state   and   partly  in 
another.     It  also  created  an  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 

1  President  Arthur  had  urged  the  necessity  of  such  a  law,  and  the  death  of 
Vice  President  Heudricks  in  1885  made  the  need  of  it  still  more  impressive. 


§  625]     INDUSTRIAL  AND   FINANCIAL   DISTURBANCES.       491 

of  five  members,  with  authority  to  decide  such  questions  under 
the  act  as  might  arise  between  the  railroads  and  their  patrons, 
and  to  make  an  annual  report  on  actual  conditions.  The  Com 
mission,  however,  was  not  given  power  to  enforce  its  decisions, 
and,  consequently,  it  failed  to  accomplish  all  the  good  that  had 
been  anticipated ;  but  many  abuses  were  corrected.  Individual 
states,  also,  in  many  cases  enacted  laws  limiting  the  rates  for 
carrying  freight  and  passengers. 

INDUSTRIAL  AND   FINANCIAL  DISTURBANCES. 

624.  Anti-Chinese  Laws.  —  The  strikes  and  other  disorders 
prevalent  during  this  period  in  many  parts  of  the  country  were 
generally  attributed  to  ignorant  foreigners,  who  had  not  yet 
become  accustomed  to  American  laws.     Immigration  brought 
in  a  large  number  of  discontented,  disheartened,  and  reckless 
people  from  Europe.     Efforts  were  now  made  to  reduce  the 
number  of  such  persons;    but  little  was  done  except  to  take 
still  harsher  measures  against  a  more  or  less  inoffensive  people 
from  Asia  (§  603).     In  1885  twenty-seven  Chinamen  were  mur 
dered  by  miners  in  Wyoming  because  they  refused  to  join  in  a 
strike.     As  the  Chinese  could  not  vote,  nobody  seemed  afraid 
to   favor   a  measure  for  their  exclusion.     In  1888,  therefore, 
a  more  stringent  law  was  passed  prohibiting  their  immigration 
into  the  country.     It  was  not  very  perfectly  drawn,  however, 
and  was  easily  evaded  by  immigration  through  Canada  and  in 
other  ways.1 

625.  The  Chicago  Anarchists.  —  Unmistakable   evidences  of 
discontent  among  the  laboring  classes  continued  to  alarm  the 
country.     Various  organizations  of  workmen  were  formed,  the 
most  conspicuous  of  which  was  the  "  Knights  of  Labor,"  with 
upwards  of  a  million  members.     A  great  strike  took  place  in 
St.  Louis  in  the  Spring  of  1886,  but  the  most  violent  outbreak 

1  In  1892  the  "  Geary  Act "  authorized  the  expulsion  from  the  country  of 
any  Chinese  who  could  not  show  that  they  had  been  admitted  without  viola 
tion  of  law.  The  government,  however,  did  not  strictly  enforce  this  act. 


492          ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND,    1885-1889.      [§  626 

occurred  in  Chicago,  May  4, 1886.  A  riot  of  anarchists,  mostly 
foreigners,  resulted  in  the  killing  of  a  number  of  policemen  by 
bombs  thrown  in  Haymarket  Square.  Four  leading  rioters 
were  executed.  Others  were  imprisoned,  but  were  pardoned 
in  1893  by  Governor  Altgeld  of  Illinois.  Though  a  reaction 
immediately  took  place  against  violence  of  an  anarchistic 
kind,  discontent  throughout  the  country  went  on  increasing. 
Perhaps  the  lessons  taught  by  the  Chicago  tragedy  were  best 
taken  to  heart  by  those  philanthropists  who  began  establishing 
"  settlements  "  among  the  poor  of  the  great  cities  and  in  other 
ways  labored  to  improve  their  condition. 

626.  Pension   Vetoes.  —  Both  political  parties  had  been  in 
clined  to  pursue  a  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  military  pensions. 
The  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  old  soldiers  and  sailors  was  so 
generally  felt  that  whenever  a  proposition  to  extend  the  pen 
sion  list  was  made,   very  few  politicians  seemed  willing  to 
oppose  it.     The  consequence  was,  that  the  liberality  of  Con 
gress  seemed  to  many  persons,  including  the  President,  to  be 
running  into  folly  and  extravagance.     The  pension  list  was 
costing  the  Treasury  about  one  hundred  million  dollars  a  year, 
and  Cleveland  determined  to  resist  its  increase.     He  vetoed  so 
large  a  number  of  pension  bills,  including  a  specially  liberal 
one  known  as  the  Dependent  Pension  Bill  (1887),  that  efforts 
to  extend  the  lists  were  discouraged. 

627.  Accumulation    in    the    Treasury.  —  In    the    course    of 
Cleveland's  administration  the  silver  coined  under  the  Bland- 
Allison  law  (§  604)  was  but  slightly  circulated,  and  the  income 
of  the  government   from  tariff  and  internal  revenue  largely 
exceeded  the  expenses.     All  the  bonds  that  were  due  had  been 
paid,  and  the  interest  on  the  national  debt  had  been  greatly 
reduced.     In  consequence  there  was  an  accumulation  of  a  very 
large  sum   of  money   in   the   Treasury.      The    President  was 
strongly  of   the   opinion  that  financial   distress  would  result 
from  continuance  of   a  tariff  producing  a  surplus  that  kept 
so  much  money  from  circulation  and  tempted  congressmen  to 


§  628]     INDUSTRIAL   AND   FINANCIAL   DISTURBANCES.       493 

make  large  appropriations  for  pensions  and  for  less  worthy 
objects.  Accordingly,  in  a  special  message  of  December,  1887, 
he  recommended  a  policy  of  tariff  reform  in  the  interests  of 
freer  trade.  As  the  Senate  was  still  Republican,  he  could  not 
have  hoped  that  Congress  would  at  once  pass  such  a  measure 
as  he  recommended  and  as  the  House  agreed. to  when  it  passed 
a  reduced  tariff  act,  known  as  the  "  Mills  Bill,"  from  its  chief 
framer,  Eoger  Q.  Mills  of  Texas.  Cleveland's  message  was 
designed  to  place  the  matter  before  the  country  in  such  a  way 
that  it  would  become  the  main  issue  at  the  next  Presidential 
election.  In  this  purpose  he  was  successful,  although  the 
"  Mills  Bill"  failed  in  the  Senate. 

628.  Election  of  Harrison  and  Morton.  —  The  Republicans  at 
their  convention  held  at  Chicago  in  1888,  nominated,  for  Presi 
dent,  Benjamin  Harrison1  of  Indiana,  a  grandson  of  President 
William  Henry  Harrison,  and  for  Vice  President,  Levi  P. 
Morton  of  New  York.  The  Democrats  met  at  St.  Louis  and 
renoininated  Cleveland,  who  was  strong  with  the  masses  of 
the  party,  although  unpopular  with  the  politicians.  Allen  G. 
Thurman,  formerly  senator  from  Ohio,  was  nominated  for  Vice 
President.  At  the  end  of  a  vigorous  campaign,  conducted 
almost  exclusively  on  the  tariff  issue,  but  marked  by  the  circu 
lation  of  misleading  statements  and  the  corrupt  use  of  money,2 
Harrison  had  two  hundred  and  thirty-three  electoral  votes,  and 


1  Born  in  Ohio,  1833 ;  died,  1899.    Graduated  at  Miami  University,  1852 ;  set 
tled  in  Indianapolis  as  a  lawyer ;  volunteered  in  1862  and  was  advanced  to 
brevet  brigadier  general ;  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  served 
from  1881  to  1887 ;  nominated  and  elected  President  in  1888 ;  renominated  in 
1892,  but  was  defeated  at  the  polls  by  Cleveland ;  retired,  at  the  end  of  his 
term,  to  the  practice  of  the  law  at  Indianapolis. 

2  There  was  a  large  amount  of  money  raised  and  used  by  the  Republicans 
for  campaign  purposes,  and  it  was  charged  by  the  Democrats  that  much  of 
this  fund  was  employed  in  purchasing  votes,  especially  in  Indiana.    Counter 
charges  of  a  similar  nature  were  brought  against  the  Democrats ;  and  it  is 
clear  that  the  people  at  large  believed  the  election  to  have  been  a  discreditable 
one  to  both  parties,  since  the  adoption  of  better  ballot  laws  by  the  states  was 
accelerated  (§  621). 


494         ADMINISTRATION  OF   CLEVELAND,    1885-1889.      [§  628 

Cleveland  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight.  As  in  1884,  the  elec 
tion  was  decided  by  the  thirty-five  electoral  votes  of  the  state 
of  New  York. 


REFERENCES.  —  See  bibliographical  note  to  Chapter  XXXIV.     Add 
Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopcedia  for  the  years  under  consideration. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION    OF   BENJAMIN   HARRISON, 
1889-1893. 

DOMESTIC   EVENTS  AND   MEASURES. 

629.  Character  of  Harrison's  Administration.  —  President 
Harrison  was  an  able  lawyer  and  a  good  judge  of  men,  as  he 
proved  by  important  judicial  appointments  and  by  the  choice 
of  a  strong  Cabinet.  His  Secretary  of  State  was  J.  G.  Elaine. 
Since  the  latter  had  favored  a  rather  aggressive  foreign  policy, 
it  is  not  strange  that  Harrison's  administration  should  be  im 
portant  on  account  of  international  relations.  Since  Congress 
was  Eepublican  in  both  branches  when  the  administration 
began,  it  was  possible  to  carry  through  important  domestic 
legislation,  including  a  new  tariff  and  a  lavish  pension  bill. 
One  measure  on  which  many  Republicans  had  set  their  hearts, 
—  a  Federal  Election  Bill,  introduced  by  Congressman  (later 
Senator)  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  of  Massachusetts,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  enable  the  general  government  to  prevent  fraud 
at  elections  in  the  larger  cities  and  in  the  South,  —  was  finally 
defeated  in  the  Senate  by  a  combination  of  Democrats  and 
Republicans  favoring  more  liberal  laws  with  regard  to  silver. 
The  defeat  of  this  so-called  "  Force  Bill "  was  probably  good 
for  the  country  and  not  harmful  to  the  Republicans ;  but  the 
party  was  hurt  by  its  tariff  legislation  and  was  badly  defeated 
in  the  congressional  election  of  1890.  Thus  the  second  half 
of  Harrison's  administration  was  not  so  productive  of  important 
legislation  as  the  first.  The  Union  was  enlarged  during  this 
period  by  the  addition  of  six  of  the  far  Western  states.  North 
and  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington  were  admitted 

495 


496 


ADMINISTRATION   OF   HARRISON,    1889-1893.        [§630 


in  1889,  and  Idaho  and  Wyoming  in  1890.  In  the  more  than 
twenty  years  that  had  elapsed  since  the  admission  of  Nebraska 
in  1867,  only  one  state  had  been  admitted  — Colorado,  in  1876. 
At  the  end  of  Harrison's  administration,  the  question  of  secur 
ing  for  the  Union  territory  outside  its  bounds  —  to  wit,  the 
Hawaiian  Islands — became  important  (§  650). 

630.   The  McKinley  Tariff.  —  The  election  of   Harrison  had 
turned  chiefly  on  the  tariff  issue  raised  by  the  special  message 

of  Cleveland;  and 
as  the  nation  had 
decided  against 
the  Cleveland  doc 
trine,  the  framing 
of  a  new  tariff  bill 
was  early  under 
taken.  It  was,  as 
usual,  intrusted  to 
the  House  Com 
mittee  of  Ways 
and  Means,  of 
which  William 
McKinley  of  Ohio 
was  chairman. 
While  it  was  gen 
erally  felt  that  a 
large  part  of  the 
surplus  in  the 
Treasury  ought  to 
be  put  into  circu 
lation,  the  Republicans  were  unwilling  to  reduce  the  duties  on 
protected  goods.  Therefore  they  adopted  the  policy  of  impos 
ing  a  higher  duty  on  all  articles  produced  in  the  United  States, 
and  reducing  the  duty  on  all  other  articles.  It  was  believed 
that  in  this  way  the  excess  of  revenue  could  be  checked  with 
out  endangering  the  protective  system.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON. 

[Copyright  by  Pach  Brothers,  1896.] 


§  632]  DOMESTIC   EVENTS   AND   MEASURES.  497 

the  so-called  "  McKinley  Tariff  "  of  1890,  although  it  admitted 
sugar  free,  and  was  supplemented  in  the  Senate  by  a  "reci 
procity  clause,'7  which  authorized  the  President  to  modify  the 
tariff  rates  upon  goods  from  other  nations  according  to  the 
liberality  of  those  nations  toward  goods  from  the  United 
States,  created  great  popular  disturbance,  and  converted  many 
voters  to  Cleveland's  theories  of  freer  trade.  It  was  followed 
by  a  marked  rise  of  prices  in  certain  articles,  and  this  fact 
probably  contributed  largely  to  the  crushing  defeat  of  the 
Republicans  in  the  election  of  1890. 

631.  Oklahoma  Territory.  —  The  new  tariff,  although   it   at 
tracted  so  much  attention,  was  but  one  of  several  important 
features    of   Harrison's   administration.      Not   long  after   the 
inauguration,  the  territory  of  Oklahoma  was  thrown  open  for 
settlement.     It  had  formed  a  part  of  Indian  Territory,  but  the 
right  of  the  Indians  had  been  purchased  by  the  United  States. 
In  order  to  prevent  speculation,  Harrison  made  it  known  that 
no  entrance  into  the  territory  before  noon  of  April  22,  1889, 
would  entitle  any  one  to  preempt  laiid.    As  the  soil  and  climate 
were  considered  particularly  desirable,  a  vast  crowd,  number 
ing,  it  was  said,  as  many  as  fifty  thousand  people,  gathered  on 
the  border  to  be  among  the  first  settlers.     At  the  bugle  blast 
announcing  the  hour,  the  waiting  settlers  rushed  over  the  bor 
der  and  the  scramble  of  selecting  lands  began.     Within  a  few 
months  Guthrie.  the  capital,  had  several  thousand  inhabitants, 
with  banks,  schools,  churches,  and  electric  lights.     The  same 
year  that  witnessed  this  notable  evidence  of  national  enterprise 
also  saw  the  great  flood  of  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania,  which 
destroyed  many  lives  and  much  property. 

632.  The  Pan-American  Congress.  —  In  October,  1889,  as  a  re 
sult  of  the  work  of  a  commission  appointed  in  1884,  a  congress 
of  representatives  of  eighteen  of  the  leading  governments  of 
North,  Central,  and  South  America,  met  at  Washington,  in 
what  was  known  as  the  Pan-American  Congress.    The  meeting, 
which  had  been  advocated  by  Elaine,  was  designed  to  promote 


498  ADMINISTRATION  OF   HARRISON,    1889-1893.        [§  633 

facilities  for  commercial  intercourse.  After  visiting  various 
parts  of  the  United  States,  the  delegates,  sixty-six  in  number, 
returned  to  Washington  and  devoted  several  months  to  the  dis 
cussion  of  better  methods  of  making  the  resources  of  their 
respective  countries  known,  and  to  other  subjects  of  mutual 
interest.  The  conference  was  not  wholly  harmonious,  nor  were 
the  results  very  definite,  although  the  fact  was  brought  out 
that  Blaine  and  other  Republicans  were  modifying  their  views 
in  the  direction  of  more  liberal  opinions  with  regard  to  the 
value  to  the  country  of  less  restricted  foreign  trade. 

633.  New  Rules  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  —  In  Decem 
ber,  1889,  important  action  was  taken  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  to  prevent  the  obstruction  of  business.     Before  that 
time,  the  question  as  to  whether  a  quorum  was  present  was 
determined  by  the  number  of  members  who  responded  to  their 
names  at  roll  call,  and  any  member  felt  at  liberty  to  remain 
silent  when  his  name  was  called.     This  custom  afforded  many 
opportunities  for  the  minority  to  prevent  legislation  by  simply 
remaining  silent,  and  thus  reducing  the  number  apparently 
present  to  less  than  a  quorum.    It  was  also  possible  to  obstruct 
legislation  indefinitely  by  a  succession  of  motions  requiring  a 
call  of  the  roll.     The  Republican  majority,  under  the  leader 
ship  of  Speaker  Thomas  B.  Reed  of  Maine,  now  changed  the 
rules  so  that  a  quorum  would  be  determined  by  the  number  of 
those  actually  present.      The  new  rules  also  empowered  the 
Speaker  to  ignore  motions  which  he  regarded  as  purely  dila-' 
tory.    Mr.  Reed's  innovations  were  denounced  at  -the  time  as 
tyrannical,  and  he  became  popularly  known  as  "  Czar  Reed  "  ; 
but  the  general  wisdom  of  his  course  of  action  was  acknowl 
edged  later,  especially  when  the  Democrats,  on  obtaining  con 
trol  of  the  House  in  1891,  did  not  revert  to  the  old  rules. 

634.  Silver  Legislation.  —  The  continued  decline  in  the  price 
of  silver  had  led  to  an  active  agitation  in  favor  of  a  law  to 
require  the  "government  to  coin  all  the  silver  that  might  be 
brought  to  its  mints  at  the  rate  of  371 J  grains  of  pure  silver  to 


§  637]  DOMESTIC   EVENTS   AND   MEASURES.  499 

the  dollar  (§  604).  Such,  a  law,  it  was  argued,  would  not  only 
provide  a  market  for  the  product  of  all  the  silver  mines,  but 
would  also  raise  the  price  of  silver  as  compared  with  gold  to 
its  old  standard.  A  majority  of  the  economists  and  financiers 
of  the  country  argued,  however,  that  such  an  extension  of  the 
currency  would  be  sure  to  bring  on  a  financial  crisis. 

635.  The  Sherman  Law.  —  In  order  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
the  suggested  law,  Congress  agreed,  in  1890,  upon  a  compro 
mise  measure,  proposed  by  Senator  Sherman  of  Ohio.     This 
"  Sherman   Bill "  provided  that  the  government  should  buy 
each   month   four  and  a  half   million   ounces   of    silver,  and 
that,  for  the  silver  so  purchased,  the  United  States  should 
issue  Treasury  notes.     These  notes,  known  as  silver  certificates, 
were  to  be  legal  tender  in  payment  of  debt.     This  compromise 
increased  the  amount  of  currency  in  circulation  by  about  fifty- 
four  million  dollars  a  year,  and  proved  to  be  a  severe  drain 
upon  the  Treasury  and  a  cause  of  financial  uneasiness.     It  did 
not,  however,  raise  the  price  of  silver,  as  many  had  anticipated 
(§  647). 

636.  New  Pensions.  —  The   vast   sum    accumulated   in   the 
Treasury  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the  currency  stimulated 
large  expenditures  on  the  part  of  the  government.     The  Presi 
dent  recommended  greater  liberality  in  the  granting  of  pen 
sions,  and  the  "  Dependent  Pension  Bill "  was  finally  passed 
in  1890  (§  626).     Under  this   law  the   amount   annually  ex 
pended  for  pensions  rapidly  rose  until,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  it  reached  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  million 
dollars  a  year. 

637.  Internal    Improvements.  —  Congress   also    made    large 
appropriations  for  internal  improvements  ;  increased  the  appro 
priations  for  the  navy  ;  and  voted  to  refund  to  the  individual 
states   the   amount   of  taxes  they  had   levied  in  support  of 
the  war   for   the   Union.      In   these  ways,   the   expenditures 
of  the  Fifty-first  Congress  exceeded  those  of  the  Fiftieth  by 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy  million  dollars,  and  in  con- 


600  ADMINISTRATION   OF   HARRISON,    1889-1893.        [§  638 

sequence  the  former  body  came  to  be  popularly  known  as  the 
"  Billion  Dollar  Congress."  This  fact  gave  the  Democrats  a 
good  opportunity  to  charge  the  Republicans  with  gross  extrav 
agance,  and  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  latter  in  the  elec 
tions  of  1890. 

638.  Labor  Riots.  —  Harrison's  administration,  like  those  of 
his  immediate  predecessors,  was   marked   by  industrial   dis 
turbances.     In  the  summer  of  1892,  a  great  strike  occurred 
at  Homestead,  near  Pittsburg,  among  the  employees  of  the 
Carnegie  Steel  Company.     In  order  to  protect  the  works  and 
the  non-union  workmen,  a  considerable  number  of  Pinkerton 
detectives  were  employed  by  the  owners.     A  collision  occurred 
between  the  detectives  and  the  strikers,  in  which  the  former 
were  forced  to  surrender,  seven  detectives  and  eleven  strikers 
being  killed.     The  district  was  placed  under  martial  law,  and 
the  militia  of  the  state  had  to  be  called  out  before  order  could 
be  restored.     About  the  same  time,  disturbances  also  occurred 
at  Buffalo,  New  York,  as  well  as  in  Tennessee,  where  the  cus 
tom  of  hiring  out  convict  laborers  caused  considerable  rioting, 
which  had  to  be  put  down  by  the  troops. 

FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 

639.  Difficulty  with  Italy.  —  During  Harrison's  administra 
tion,  the  foreign  relations  of  the  government  required,  as  has 
already  been  indicated,  very  careful  treatment.      In  March, 
1891,  a  serious  riot  occurred  in  New  Orleans,  in  which  several 
persons  of  Italian  birth  were  forcibly  taken  from  jail  by  a  mob 
and  shot  or  hanged.     The  disturbance  was  due  to  the  murder 
of  a  popular  chief  of  police  and  to  the  unexpected  acquittal  of 
six  of  the  Italians  accused  of  the  crime  and  the  failure  of  the 
jury  to  agree  on  a  verdict  in  the  case  of  three.     Believing 
that  the  jury  was  bribed  or  intimidated  by  the  criminal  secret 
society  known  as  the  "Mafia/7  to  which  the  accused  men  be 
longed,  the  citizens  became  infuriated  and  broke  into  the  jail, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  district  attorney.     Most  of  the  men 


§  641]  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS.  501 

lynched  were  naturalized  citizens,  but  some  of  them  still  owed 
allegiance  to  Italy.  While  the  United  States  government  ex 
pressed  its  earnest  regret  at  the  incident,  it  disavowed  all 
responsibility  for  it,  since  it  was  a  matter  entirely  under  the 
control  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  The  Italian  government 
demanded  a  national  apology,  the  payment  of  an  indemnity, 
arid  the  punishment  of  the  perpetrators  of  the  outrage.  The 
United  States  government  refused  to  comply ;  whereupon  the 
Italian  minister  withdrew  from  Washington.  The  matter  as 
sumed  a  warlike  aspect ;  but  as  an  evidence  of  national  good 
will  the  government  finally  agreed  to  pay  the  sum  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  dollars  for  the  families  of  those  who  had  been 
killed.  Blaine  managed  the  negotiations  in  a  most  creditable 
manner,  in  view  of  the  difficulty  of  making  the  Italian  govern 
ment  understand  that  even  in  affairs  involving  international 
relations  the  government  of  the  United  States  sometimes  has 
not  full  control  of  the  actions  of  its  own  citizens. 

640.  Difficulty  with  Chile.  —  In  October,  1891,  a  number  of 
sailors  in  uniform,  belonging  to  the  United  States  cruiser  Balti 
more,  were  assaulted  in  the  streets  of  Valparaiso,  in  consequence 
of   bad   feeling  aroused    by   previous   acts    of    the   American 
Minister,  who  had  not  been  neutral  in  a  civil  war  going  on  in 
Chile.     The  Chilean  populace  was  also  incensed  against  the 
Americans  on  account  of  the  illegal  chase  of  a  Chilean  vessel, 
the  Itata,  by  the  United   States  cruiser  Charleston.     The  re 
quests  of  our  government  for  an  apology  and  for  reparation 
were  ignored,  until,  in  January,  1892,  a  peremptory  demand, 
accompanied  by  ships  of-  war,  was  presented  to  the  Chilean 
government.     An  indemnity  of  seventy-five  thousand  dollars 
was  promptly   offered  and   accepted.     Blaine  seems  to  have 
handled  with   his  usual  skill   this  not   altogether  creditable 
affair. 

641.  Seal  Fisheries.  —  Blaine  displayed  equal  vigor,  but  prcb- 
ably  less  discretion,  in  his  efforts  to  secure  the  settlement  of 
another  serious  question.     For  some  years  a  dispute  had  existed 


502  ADMINISTRATION  OF   HARRISON,    1889-1893.         [§  642 

between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  in  regard  to  the 
rights  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  seal  fisheries  off  Alaska.1  The 
dispute  involved  the  question  as  to  whether  Alaska  seals,  in 
going  to  and  from  the  outer  islands,  passed  out  of  the  United 
States  jurisdiction,  so  as  to  be  subject  to  capture  by  foreign 
fishermen.  This  difficult  question,  which  had  never  been 
clearly  settled  by  international  law,  was  finally  submitted,  in 
1892,  to  arbitration,  the  seven  arbitrators  meeting  at  Paris,  in 
the  spring  of  1893.  The  contention  of  the  United  States  was 
not  allowed,  and  it  was  declared  that  no  exclusive  property  in 
seals  could  exist  outside  the  three-mile  limit.  It  was  decided, 
however,  that  both  nations  might  join  in  protecting  the  seals  in 
the  open  waters. 

POLITICAL  AFFAIRS. 

642.  The  People's  Party.  —  For  many  years  before  1890  the 
farmers  of  the  country  had  shown  unmistakable  signs  of  dis 
satisfaction  (§  596).  Many  organizations,  known  as  Farmers' 
Leagues,  Granges,  Patrons  of  Industry,  and  Farmers'  Alliances, 
had  been  organized  for  various  purposes,  and  for  the  spread  of 
knowledge  in  regard  to  matters  of  mutual  interest.  In  1889 
these  organizations  were  united  into  what  was  known  as  the 
"Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union."  They  met  in  St. 
Louis,  and  in  the  following  year  called  a  convention,  which 
gave  to  the  organization  the  title  of  the  "  People's  [or  Populist] 
Party."  They  demanded  the  unlimited  coinage  of  silver,  at  a 
ratio  of  sixteen  to  one  (§  604),  a  graduated  income  tax,  govern 
ment  ownership  of  railroads  and  telegraphs,  and  a  national  cur 
rency  to  be  loaned  to  the  people,  at  two  per  cent,  on  the  security 
of  land  or  produce.  On  this  platform,  in  1890,  two  senators 
and  five  representatives  in  Congress  were  elected.  In  1892  the 
new  party  was  ready  to  put  a  Presidential  ticket  in  the  field. 

1  In  1867  Secretary  Seward  concluded  a  treaty  with  Russia,  by  which  the 
United  States  secured  for  $  7,200,000  the  sparsely  populated  northwestern  ter 
ritory  of  Alaska,  containing  over  530,000  square  miles. 


§643]  POLITICAL   AFFAIRS.  503 

643.  Pending  Political  Questions.  —  In  the  election  of  1892 
several  very  important  questions  were  involved.  While  there 
had  been  general  prosperity  in  the  country,  there  was  a  wide 
spread  feeling  that  the  tariff  was  not  accomplishing  what  had 
been  claimed  for  it.  The  government  was  accused  of  great 
extravagance  (§  637),  and  some  of  its  creditable  achievements, 
such  as  the  passage  of  a  long  needed  International  Copyright 
Law  and  of  an  Anti-Lottery  Bill  which  helped  to  put  down 
the  great  Louisiana  Lottery,  were  hardly  remembered.  The 
relations  of  capital  and  labor  were  not  satisfactory,  and  it  was 
widely  felt  that  labor  was  not  receiving  its  share  in  the  profits 
of  industry.  The  accumulations  of  silver  in  the  Treasury  now 
amounted  to  a  vast  sum,  which  many  people  desired  to  see  put 
in  circulation.  In  the  midst  of  this  prevailing  discontent, 
Harrison,  who  had  been  a  good  executive,  was  renominated 
for  the  Presidency,  with  Whitelaw  Reid  of  New  York  for  Vice 
President,  in  a  convention  held  at  Minneapolis.  The  Demo 
crats  met  at  Chicago,  and  once  more  nominated  Cleveland,  who 
had  spent  the  interim  practicing  law  in  New  York  City,  with 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois  for  Vice  President.  The  People's 
Party  nominated  James  B.  Weaver  of  Iowa  for  President,  and 
James  G.  Field  of  Virginia  for  Vice  President.  The  result  was 
an  overwhelming  victory  for  the  Democrats.  Cleveland  and 
Stevenson  received  two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  electoral 
votes,  while  Harrison  and  Reid  received  only  one  hundred  and 
forty-five,  and  the  People's  Party  candidates,  twenty-two. 


REFERENCES. — See  bibliographical  notes  to  Chapters  XXXIV.  and 
XXXV. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII. 

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION   OP    CLEVELAND,  1893-1897. 

FINANCIAL   LEGISLATION. 

644.  Character  of  the  Administration.  —  Although  Cleveland 
began  his  second  administration  with  a  Democratic  majority  in 
both  houses  of  Congress,  —  something  that  had  not  been  known 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  war, — he  was  not  able,  for  two  reasons, 
to  make  as  successful  a  record  as  he  had  made  during  his  first 
term.     The  pension,  tariff,  and  monetary  legislation  of  Harri 
son's  administration  brought  about  great  financial  disturbances, 
which  lost  the  Democrats  the  control  of  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  and  hampered  Cleveland;  while  the  latter's  own 
party,  the  Democrats,  broke  away  from  his  leadership  and 
adopted  many  of  the  extreme,  more  or  less  socialistic  views  of 
the  People's  Party.     Cleveland  himself,  although  he  increased 
the  number  of  offices  subject  to  Civil  Service  rules  and  made 
good  appointments,  failed  to  maintain  tactful  relations  with 
the  Democratic  leaders  and  even  lost  some  of  his  hold  upon 
the  people  at  large.     Nevertheless,  he  administered  his  duties 
with  such  firmness   and  honesty  that  it  would  be  unjust  to 
describe  his  second  administration  as  a  failure. 

645.  Industrial  Causes  of  the  Panic  of  1893.  —  On  taking  up 
his  duties,  the  new  President  found  himself  confronted  with  a 
serious  financial  crisis.     The  prospect  of  change  in  the  tariff 
and  in  the  currency  had  unsettled  financial  and  commercial 
activity.     The  manufacturers  of  the  country  relied  on  the  aid 
of  high  protective  duties,  but  the  Democratic  victory  had  been 
so  sweeping  that  they  feared  the  tariff  would  be  either  greatly 

504 


§  647]  FINANCIAL   LEGISLATION.  505 

modified  or  swept  away.  They  argued  that  in  this  case  the 
country  would  be  flooded  with  foreign  articles,  and  that  prices 
would  be  so  reduced  as  to  bring  disaster  to  all  who  had 
domestic  goods  on  hand.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  it  seemed  prob 
able  that  the  Democrats  would  carry  the  election,  manufac 
turers  very  generally  suspended  operations  in  their  shops,  and 
thousands  of  workmen  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  From 
this  cause  there  was  an  immediate  stagnation  of  business,  which 
helped  to  bring  on  financial  distress. 

646.  Financial  Causes  of  the  Panic.  — There  was  another  cause 
of  business  depression,  which  is  more  difficult  to  explain,  but 
which  had  a  still  more  disastrous  influence.     The  greenbacks 
not  redeemed  in  1879  (§  605),  but  still  subject  to  redemption, 
amounted  to  more  than  $346,000,000.    The  Silver  Purchase  Act 
of  1890,  as  we  have  already  seen  (§  635),  directed  the  Treasurer 
to  buy  silver  bullion  at  the  rate  of  $4,500,000  a  month  and  pay 
for  it  with  new  notes  that  were  "  exchangeable  for  coin."     Now 
the  government  interpreted  "coin"   to  mean   gold.     In  this 
way  the  notes  in  circulation  redeemable  in  gold  increased,  till, 
in  1893,  they  amounted  to  nearly  $500,000,000.     As  the  num 
ber  was  constantly  increasing  at  the  rate  of  $4,500,000  a  month, 
the  people  began  to  distrust  the  ability  of  the  government  to 
redeem  the  notes.     This  distrust  of  itself  would  have  made  a 
financial  crash  inevitable,  but  the  condition  was  made  worse 
by  the  decline  in  the  price  of  silver,  to  which  reference  has 
several  times  been  made  (§  634). 

647.  Decline  in  the  Price  of  Silver.  —  In  twenty  years  the 
value  of  silver  had  fallen  from  one  dollar  and  thirty  cents 
an  ounce,  till  in  1893  it  was  worth  only  about  eighty  cents. 
People   in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  America,  naturally  feared 
that   our   government  might   interpret   the  word   "coin"  to 
mean  silver  as  well  as  gold,  and  might  choose  to  redeem  its 
notes  in  the  cheaper  metal.     This  fear  led  business  men  every 
where  to  desire  the  redemption  of  their  bonds  and  notes  before 
the  government  should  begin  to  pay  silver.     Foreign  investors 


506          ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND,    1893-1897.      [§  648 

sent  back  their  bonds  for  redemption,  while  the  people  at  home 
in  many  cases  even  drew  their  money  from  banks  through  fear 
that  the  latter  would  soon  not  be  able  to  meet  the  demands 
for  gold  made  upon  them.  These  various  influences  caused 
a  financial  crash  about  two  months  after  Cleveland's  inaugura 
tion.  More  than  three  hundred  banks  either  failed  outright 
or  suspended  payment;  business  men  found  it  impossible  to 
borrow  money  on  any  terms,  and  thousands  of  failures  in  busi 
ness  followed. 

648.  Repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act.  —  As  the  Treasury  was  still 
obliged  by  the  Sherman  Act  to  continue  purchasing  silver,  the 
President  called  a  special  session  of  Congress  to  modify  or 
repeal  the  law.     The  clause  of  the  bill  authorizing  the  pur 
chase  of  silver  was  quickly  repealed  by  the  House,  when  Con 
gress  met  in  August,  but  the  measure  was  strenuously  opposed 
in  the  Senate  by  numerous  advocates  of  the  unrestricted  use 
of  silver  currency.     The  repealing  act  was  finally  carried  and 
became  a  law,  November  1,  1893.     Its  remedial  effects,  how 
ever,  were  not  speedily  visible.     At  the  beginning  of  winter  it 
was  estimated  that  as  many  as  two  hundred  and  sixty  thou 
sand  laboring  men  were  unoccupied  in  Chicago,  New  York,  and 
Philadelphia.     Moreover,  the  repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act  and 
the   persistent  decline  in  the   price   of   silver  caused  nearly 
all  the  silver  mines  in  the  West  to  be  closed.     In  Colorado 
alone,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  miners  not  only  lost 
their  employment,  but  became  dependent  on  charity  for  food 
and  shelter.     The  demand  for  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  rate 
of  sixteen  to  one  consequently  became  emphatic  in  the  far  West 
and  was  supported  by  the  Populists  and  many  Democrats  in 
the  East. 

649.  The    Wilson    Tariff    Law.  —  As    the    Democrats   were 
pledged  to  modify  the  tariff  law,  this  subject  was  taken  up  at 
the  beginning  of  the  first  regular  session  of  Congress  in  Decem 
ber,  1893.     William  L.  Wilson  of  West  Virginia,  Chairman  of 
the  House  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  brought  in  a  bill 


§650]  FOREIGN   AFFAIRS.  507 

which  greatly  reduced  the  tariff  on  many  articles.  This  meas 
ure,  after  being  much  altered  on  account  of  opposition  in  the 
Senate,  was  finally  passed.  The  President,  however,  since 
the  bill  in  its  ultimate  form  reduced  duties  only  about  one 
quarter  on  an  average,  regarded  it  as  a  modification  of  a 
protective  tariff,  rather  than  as  a  measure  in  the  interests  of 
freer  trade,  and  therefore  allowed  it  to  become  a  law  without 
his  approval  or  signature.  It  was  anticipated  that  the  law 
would  fail  to  produce  the  necessary  revenue,  and,  largely  on 
this  account,  a  clause  was  added  which  provided  for  an  income 
tax  of  two  per  cent  on  all  incomes  of  more  than  four  thousand 
dollars.  It  was  expected  that  the  income  tax  would  yield  not 
less  than  forty  million  dollars  a  year.  The  Supreme  Court, 
however,  declared  this  portion  of  the  act  unconstitutional 
and  therefore  null  and  void.  The  natural  consequences  fol 
lowed.  The  income  of  the  government  was  insufficient  to 
meet  the  current  expenses ;  gold  continued  to  be  exported  for 
the  payment  of  bonds  offered  for  redemption.  To  meet  these 
demands  new  bonds  had  to  be  issued;  and  consequently,  before 
the  end  of  the  administration,  the  public  debt  had  been  in 
creased  by  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars.  It  is 
no  wonder,  in  view  of  the  unsatisfactory  character  of  the 
Democratic  legislation  in  1893-1894,  that  in  the  congressional 
elections  of  1894  the  Republicans  should  have  swept  the 
country. 

FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 

650.  Revolution  in  Hawaii.  —  Early  in  his  administration, 
President  Cleveland  was  obliged  to  consider  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  Hawaii.  While  Harrison  was  in  office,  discontented 
resident  Americans  and  Sandwich  Islanders  had  overthrown 
the  government  of  Queen  Liliuokalani  and  established  a  repub 
lican  form  of  government.  The  leaders  hoped  that  they  could 
secure  the  annexation  of  the  Islands  to  the  United  States. 
American  seamen  were  landed  for  the  avowed  purpose  of 
protecting  American  citizens,  but  it  was  charged,  with  probable 


508         ADMINISTRATION  OF   CLEVELAND,    1893-1897.      [§651 

truthfulness,  that  they  actively  supported  the  revolutionary 
movement.  The  insurgents  sent  commissioners  to  Washington, 
who  were  influential  enough  to  secure  the  draft  of  a  treaty  of 
annexation,  which  was  sent  by  Harrison  to  the  Senate  for  con 
firmation.  Before  the  Senate  was  ready  to  act  on  the  treaty, 
however,  Harrison's  administration  came  to  an  end ;  and  one  of 
Cleveland's  first  acts  was  to  withdraw  the  treaty  and  send  a 
commissioner  to  the  Isiands  to  investigate  and  report  on  the 
condition  of  affairs.  On  his  arrival  the  commissioner  declared 
the  previously  established  American  protectorate  at  an  end  and 
took  down  the  American  flag.  In  his  final  report  to  the  Presi 
dent,  he  asserted  that  the  success  of  the  revolution  had  resulted 
chiefly  from  the  efforts  of  the  American  Minister  and  the  sup 
port  of  the  American  troops.  The  President  thereupon  with 
drew  all  such  support  and  wrote  a  letter  of  regret  and  sympathy 
to  the  queen.  He  also  sent  a  minister  to  help  her  to  regain  her 
authority,  —  an  act  for  which  he  was  much  criticised  by  the 
many  persons  who  disapproved  of  his  Hawaiian  policy.  The 
movement  on  the  Islands,  however,  had  been  so  successful  that 
the  queen  was  unable  to  regain  her  throne  and  finally  sold  her 
rights.  The  annexationists  were  completely  successful  four 
years  later  (§  672). 

651.  The  Venezuelan  Dispute.  —  Two  years  later,  President 
Cleveland  proved  to  the  critics  of  his  Hawaiian  policy  that  he 
had  a  firmer  grasp  on  foreign  affairs  than  they  thought.  For 
nearly  half  a  century  a  difference  of  opinion  had  existed  be 
tween  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  as  to  the  boundary  line 
between  their  possessions  in  South  America.  Great  Britain 
had  received  by  treaty,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before,  the 
territory  in  South  America  which  belonged  to  Holland ;  while 
the  rights  of  Venezuela  had  been  derived  from  Spain.  The 
boundary  line  had  never  been  clearly  defined,  and,  as  time 
progressed,  disputes  with  regard  to  it  became  more  and  more 
serious.  Venezuela  finally  appealed  to  the  United  States  for 
assistance.  President  Cleveland's  Secretary  of  State,  Richard 


§  651]  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS.  509 

Olney  of  Massachusetts,  entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
British  government  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  settlement  of 
the  dispute  by  arbitration.  Great  Britain  took  the  ground  that 
the  question  was  one  not  appropriate  for  arbitration,  inasmuch 
as  it  involved  the  possible  surrender  of  territory  which  had  long 
been  believed  to  be  British  and  had  been  occupied  by  British 
subjects,  whose  rights  should  not  be  put  in  jeopardy.  The 
correspondence  became  animated,  and  finally,  in  December, 
1895,  President  Cleveland  submitted  the  papers  to  Congress 
with  a  special  message.  He  took  the  ground  that  the  United 
States,  following  out  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  would  be  bound  to 
resist  in  every  possible  way  any  encroachment  by  Great  Britain 
upon  any  territory  belonging  to  Venezuela.  He  asked  for  an 
appropriation  by  Congress  to  provide  for  a  commission  to  in 
vestigate  the  whole  subject  of  the  boundary  dispute.  Congress 
at  once  appropriated  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  that 
purpose.  The  message  of  the  President  startled  every  one  and 
made  a  profound  sensation,  not  only  in  the  United  States,  but 
also  in  Great  Britain  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
possibility,  even  the  probability,  of  war  was  freely  talked  of, * 
although  the  people  of  neither  country  desired  it.  The  commis 
sion  entered  promptly  upon  its  work,  but  before  it  was  ready  to 
report,  the  British  government  agreed  to  submit  to  arbitration 
all  questions  pertaining  to  lands  other  than  those  that  could  be 
shown,  before  a  joint  commission,  to  have  been  occupied  by 
British  subjects  for  at  least  fifty  years.  In  this  way  the  con 
tentions  of  both  governments  were  satisfied.  The  joint  com 
mission  of  arbitration  met  in  Paris  in  the  summer  of  1899,  and 
in  due  form  rendered  a  final  judgment,  which  was  on  the  whole 
favorable  to  Great  Britain.  Cleveland's  action  in  the  matter, 
while  harshly  criticised  in  some  quarters,  especially  on  account 
of  the  direct  language  employed  in  his  message,  was  on  the 
whole  supported  with  great  enthusiasm  by  the  people  at  large, 

!In  consequence  of  the  war  rumors,  American  securities  fell  and  the  drain 
on  the  Treasury's  supply  of  gold  compelled  the  President  to  ask  Congress  t« 
authorize  a  fresh  issue  of  bonds. 


510          ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND,    1893-1897.      [§  652 

regardless  of  party.  The  policy  he  advocated  with  respect  to 
the  relations  of  the  United  States  toward  the  weaker  republics 
to  the  south  may  be  regarded  as  an  extension  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  to  which  Congress  and  the  people  have  given  their 
consent. 

DOMESTIC   EVENTS. 

652.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  —  One  of  the  most 
conspicuous  events  of  Cleveland's  second  administration  was  the 
Columbian  Exposition,  commemorative  of  the  four  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.     There 
was  active  competition  among  the  great  cities  for  the  privilege  of 
holding  the  exhibition.     Congress  decided  upon  Chicago.    The 
exposition  was  projected  for  the  year  1892,  but  the  prepa 
rations  to  be  made  were  so  vast  that  postponement  till  1893 
was  necessary.     A  large  appropriation  was  made  by  Congress, 
and  the  state  of  Illinois  also  rendered  important  assistance ; 
but  the  remarkable  success  of  the  undertaking  was  chiefly  due 
to  the  enterprise  of  the  people  of  Chicago.     No  other  exhi 
bition  ever  presented  so  magnificent  an  appearance.     Jackson 
Park,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  was  chosen  as  a  site, 
and  the  preparation  of  grounds  and  buildings  was  intrusted 
to   a  board   of  the   most   eminent   landscape    gardeners    and 
architects  in  the  country.     Machinery  and  manufactured  pro 
ducts  were  brought  together  from  all  lands,  and  an  important 
impulse  was  given  to  every  form  of  American  and  European 
industry.     But  while  the  exhibits  were  most  satisfactory,  the 
beauty  of  the  grounds  and  buildings  was  more  important,  since 
it  encouraged  the  belief  that  America  could  become  in  time 
as  notable  for  her  artistic  as  for  her  industrial  achievements. 
The  exposition  was  visited  by  more  than  twenty-seven  millions 
of  people  —  nearly  three  times  as  many  as  visited  the  Centen 
nial  at  Philadelphia  in  1876  (§  595). 

653.  Strikes  and  Riots. — The  Columbian  Exposition  repre 
sented  the  benefits  of  industrial  peace ;  but  while  it  was  being 
held,  the  panic  already  described  (§§  645-649)  was  in  progress, 


§655]  DOMESTIC   EVENTS.  511 

and  the  country's  industries  were  thrown  into  great  confusion. 
As  had  so  often  happened  in  the  twenty  years  preceding,  dis 
content  among  the  working  classes  caused  much  agitation  and 
rioting.  An  "army"  of  unemployed  men  and  tramps,  under 
the  leadership  of  a  person  named  Coxey,  actually  marched  to 
Washington  to  demand  redress  for  their  grievances.  They 
were  easily  dispersed;  but  a  great  strike,  which  took  place  at 
Chicago  in  the  summer  of  1894,  was  put  down  only  with  the  use 
of  considerable  force.  General  inactivity  in  business  had  led 
the  Pullman  Car  Company  to  make  a  reduction  in  the  price 
of  labor  in  their  shops.  The  strike  just  mentioned  followed ; 
and,  after  some  weeks  of  turbulence,  the  American  Railway 
Union  ordered  the  employees  of  all  those  railroads  in  Chicago 
that  did  not  refuse  to  use  the  Pullman  cars  to  cease  work.  The 
consequence  was  a  practical  cessation  of  traffic  for  some  days. 
When  an  attempt  was  made  to  move  the  trains,  the  trainmen 
were  assaulted.  Cars  were  wrecked  and  set  on  fire,  and  many 
men  were  killed  or  wounded.  President  Cleveland,  though 
having  no  precedent  for  the  act,  with  characteristic  energy 
and  decision  sent  United  States  troops  to  protect  United  States 
property,  to  secure  the  unhindered  transmission  'of  the  mails, 
and  to  prevent  interference  with  interstate  commerce.  His 
firmness  restored  order  in  Chicago  and  prevented  outbreaks  of 
lawlessness  in  other  places. 

654.  The  Political  Condition  of  New  York  City.  —  The  city  of 
New  York  had  long  been  disgracefully  ruled  by  corrupt  poli 
ticians  affiliated  with  Tammany  Hall.     In  1894,  an  investigat 
ing  committee  exposed  the  system  of  blackmail  and  plunder 
by  which   the   politicians   maintained   themselves   in   power. 
In   consequence   of    these    revelations,    a   reform    ticket   was 
victorious  in  the  fall   of   1894   and   the   government  of  the 
city  was  improved. 

655.  The  Campaign   of  1896.  —  Political   conditions   at  the 
time  of  the  campaign  of  1896  were  strangely  confused.     The 
President   and   his   supporters   were   out   of   sympathy  with 


512          ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND,   1893-1897.      [§  655 

the  chief  leaders  and  the  masses  of  the  Democratic  party. 
Many  Democrats  had  become  Populists.  Many  Republicans 
who  favored  silver  had  broken  more  or  less  with  those  of  their 
party  who  considered  the  protective  tariff  the  main  political 
issue.  The  number  of  Independent  voters  had  increased.  In 
the  midst  of  this  confusion,  the  Republican  convention  met  at 
St.  Louis  and  adopted  a  platform  favoring  protection  and,  less 
explicitly,  the  maintenance  of  a  gold  standard.  They  also 
declared  their  willingness  to  cooperate  with  European  nations 
in  an  effort  to  restore  a  policy  of  bimetalism.  The  Democrats, 
on  the  other  hand,  meeting  at  Chicago,  declared  that  the  United 
States  should  adopt  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  a  ratio  of  six 
teen  to  one,  even  without  the  cooperation  of  Europe.  Other 
planks,  especially  one  attacking  the  Supreme  Court,  which  had 
given  offense  by  its  decision  with  regard  to  the  income  tax  (§  649), 
showed  that  the  party  had  adopted  many  of  the  principles  of 
the  Populists.  The  administration  of  Cleveland  was  expressly 
condemned.  The  Republicans,  rejecting  the  candidacy  of 
Speaker  Reed,  nominated,  for  President,  William  McKinley,1 
who  had  left  Congress  to  become  governor  of  Ohio,  and  had 
secured  the  shrewd  support  of  Marcus  A.  Hanna  of  that  state. 
Garret  A.  Hobart  of  New  Jersey  was  nominated  for  Vice 
President.  The  Democrats,  carried  away  by  a  remarkable 
speech  of  William  J.  Bryan,2  a  young  ex-congressman  from 
Nebraska,  nominated  him  for  President,  and  Arthur  Sewall  of 

1  Born  in  Ohio,  1843;  died  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  September,  1901.    Volun 
teered,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the  Civil  War;  was  representative  in 
Congress,  1877-1891 ;   as  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  took 
principal  part  in  framing  the  McKinley  Tariff  Act  of  October  1,  1890;  gov 
ernor  of  Ohio,  1892-1894;  was  reflected  for  the  ensuing  term,  but  in  1896  was 
nominated  and  elected  President  of  the  United  States;   was  unanimously  re- 
nominated  by  the  Republican  Convention  in  1900;   elected  to  a  second  term; 
assassinated  at  Buffalo,  September,  1901. 

2  Born  in  Illinois,  1860.     Graduated  at  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  1881  ; 
studied  law  at  Union  College  of  Law,  Chicago ;  practiced  law  at  Jacksonville, 
Illinois,  188:3-1887;  went  to  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  1887;  representative  in  Con 
gress,  1891-1895;    Democratic    candidate  for  United   States  senator,  1894; 
editor  of  Omaha  World-Herald,  1894-1896 ;  delegate  to  Democratic  National 
Convention  in  1896;  made  a  notable  speech  in  advocacy  of  free  silver  at  six- 


655J 


DOMESTIC   EVENTS. 


513 


Maine  for  Vice  President.  Bryan's  nomination  was  accepted 
by  the  "  People's "  Party,  but  Thomas  E.  Watson  of  Georgia 
was  put  in  place  of  Sewall  for 
Vice  President.  Those  Demo 
crats  that  could  not  advocate 
a  free  coinage  policy,  after  much 
hesitation,  met  in  separate  con 
vention  at  Indianapolis  and 
nominated  General  John  M. 
Palmer  of  Illinois  for  President, 
and  General  Simon  B.  Buckner 
of  Kentucky  for  Vice  President, 
on  a  platform  advocating  a  gold 
basis.  The  campaign  was  an 
exciting  one  and  caused  much 
anxiety  in  financial  circles  ;  but 
it  was  conducted  with  unusual 
freedom  from  personal  accusa 
tions.  Bryan  made  a  .remarka 
ble  tour  of  the  country,  stirring  large  crowds  by  his  eloquence ; 
but  his  efforts  were  vain,  since  the  silver  policy  he  supported 
drove  thousands  of  Democrats  and  Independents  into  the  Re 
publican  ranks.  McKinley  and  Hobart  were  elected  by  two 
hundred  and  seventy-one  electoral  votes,  while  Bryan  and 
Sewall  received  one  hundred  and  seventy-six.  So  great  was 
the  disaffection  within  the  Democratic  party,  that  the  "  Solid 
South  "  was  broken  for  the  first  time  since  the  war. 


WILLIAM  J.  BRYAN. 


REFERENCES.  —  See  bibliographical  note  to  Chapter  XXXIV.  See  also 
Cleveland's  articles  on  the  Venezuelan  boundary  dispute,  in  the  Century 
for  June  and  July,  1902. 

teen  to  one,  and  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency ;  defeated  in  November, 
1896;  continued  to  speak  on  political  matters  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
1896-1900;  was  unanimously  renominated  for  President  at  the  Democratic 
Convention,  July  5,  1900;  defeated,  and  began  to  edit  a  newspaper  at  his 
home  in  Lincoln,  Nebraska;  made  a  tour  of  the  world;  nominated  again  for 
the  Presidency  and  defeated,  1908;  Secretary  of  State  under  Wilson,  1913, 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

THE    ADMINISTRATIONS    OF    McKINLEY    AND    ROOSE 
VELT,    1897-1909. 

THE  BEGINNING   OF  McKINLEY'S   ADMINISTRATION. 

656.  Character  of  the  Administration. — McKinley  soon  proved 
himself  to  possess  great  tact  as  an  executive.     Some  of  his 
Cabinet  appointments  were  not  good,  and  he  showed  weakness 
in  his  attitude  toward  Civil  Service  reform ;  but  as  time  went 
on  his  courtesy  and  amiability  won  him  many  friends,  even 
among  his  political  opponents.    His  administration  was  strong 
through  the  presence  of  a  Republican  majority  in  both  houses 
of  Congress,  and  important  tariff  and  other  legislation  was 
made  possible.     But  before  long  domestic   affairs  were  over 
shadowed  by  issues  growing  out  of  the  war  with  Spain  and  the 
acquisition  of  outlying  territories. 

657.  Modification  of  the  Tariff.  —  Two  days  after  McKinley's 
inauguration  he  summoned  an  extra  session  of  Congress,  and 
in  his  message  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  for  some  years 
the  expenditures  of  the  government  had  exceeded  the  income, 
and  that  the  tariff  should  be  so  modified  as  to  remedy  this 
deficiency.    A  tariff  bill  was  soon  presented  by  Representative 
Bingley,  Chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the 
House,  and  was  duly  passed.     It  increased  duties  markedly, 
but  to  a  less  extent  than  the  McKinley  Bill.    For  many  months 
the  Dingley  Bill  failed  to  furnish  the  needed  additional  revenue, 
and  to  supply  the  deficiency,  the  bill  was  supplemented  by  an 
additional  tax  on  beer  and  a  few  other  articles.     The  ques 
tions  with  regard  to  the  currency  and  to  banking  which  the 
party  platform  had  promised  to  settle  were  reserved  for  later 
Congressional  action. 

514 


659] 


THE   WAR   WITH  SPAIN. 


515 


THE   WAR   WITH   SPAIN. 

658,  Early  Spanish  Difficulties  in  Cuba.  —  Spanish  rule  in  the 
West  Indies  had,  ever  since  the  discovery  of  America,  been 
characterized  by  rapacity  and  cruelty.     Revolts   were  never 
uncommon)  but  outbreaks  were  particularly  frequent  during 

the  latter  part 

*  •  ,..,...,......,.....„,.,. 

of  the  nine 
teenth  century. 
As  many  as 
eight  organized 
efforts  to  throw 
off  the  Spanish 
yoke  occurred 
between  1823 
and  the  "  Ten 
Years'  War," 
which  desolated 
Cuba  from  1868 
to  1878.  In 
stead  of  taking 
a  lesson  from 
experience,  and 
improving  the 
condition  of  af 
fairs,  the  Span 
ish  authorities 
doubled  the  dis 
content  by  the 

imposition  of  taxes  designed  to  reimburse  the  mother  country 
for  the  cost  of  the  long  war.  The  result  was  a  rapid  reorgan 
ization  of  the  Cuban  forces  and  a  fresh  outbreak  of  revolt  in 
1895. 

659.  Later  Policy  of  Spain.  —  The  Spanish  government  now 
adopted  a  harsher  policy  than  ever.     Captain-General  Campos 
was  thought  to  be  too  lenient,  and  he  was  replaced  by  General 


WILLIAM  MCKINLEY. 


516  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  600 

Weyler,  who  had  gained  notoriety  for  harshness  as  Governor- 
General  of  the  Philippines.  The  new  governor  took  hold  of 
his  work  in  Cuba  with  brutal  energy.  His  policy  was  simply 
to  starve  the  people  into  submission.  With  a  large  army  he 
overran  the  island,  burning  houses  and  crops  and  driving  the 
women  and  children  into  villages  and  pens,  called  "trochas," 
where  their  numbers  were  rapidly  reduced  by  starvation. 
.President  Cleveland  attempted  to  intercede  in  behalf  of  the 
Cubans,  but  his  approaches  were  repelled  by  the  government 
at  Madrid  as  an  unwarranted  interference,  and  nothing  was 
accomplished. 

660.  Sympathies   of    Americans.  —  As   the   Cuban   situation 
came  to  be  more  thoroughly  understood  in  the  United  States, 
•public  opinion  was  outraged  and  finally  raised  to  a  high  pitch  of 
indignation.    Money  and  supplies  were  privately  sent  to  assist 
the  insurgents,  and  the  United  States  government  ,was  obliged 
to  police  its  ports  in  order  to  preserve  the  international  obli 
gations   of  neutrality.     The  temper  of  the  country  and  the 
representations  of  our  government  soon  convinced  Spain  that 
concessions  must  be  made  or  immediate  war  was  inevitable. 
Weyler  was  removed  and  a  promise  of  some  measure  of  self- 
government  was  given.      Notwithstanding   these   assurances, 
however,  there  was  little  public   faith   in   Spanish  promises, 
and  no  plain  evidence  of  improvement  followed. 

661.  Destruction  of  the  "Maine."  —  Such  being  the  state  of 
affairs,  war  was  rendered  almost  inevitable  by  a  disastrous 
event  that  took  place  on  the  15th  of  February,  1898.      The 
United  States  battleship  Maine  was  anchored  in  the  harbor 
of  Havana.     Late  in  the  evening,  after  most  of  the  crew  had 
gone  to  their  hammocks,  a  terrific  explosion  occurred,  which 
destroyed  not  only  the  ship,  but  also  the  lives  of  two  hundred 
and   sixty-six  of    the   officers   and   crew.     The  horror  of   the 
disaster  thrilled  the  civilized  world.      A  court  consisting  of 
naval  officers  was  appointed  by  the  President  to  investigate 
the   matter  and  report.      They  employed   divers,  as  well  as 


§663]  THE   WAR   WITH   SPAIN.  517 

other  experts,  and  reported  that  all  the  evidence  tended  to  show 
that  a  mine  beneath  the  keel  had  exploded  first  and  that  the 
concussion  had  an  instant  later  exploded  two  of  the  magazines 
of  the  vessel.  A  Spanish  court  denied  the  correctness  of  the 
American  report.  There  was  no  evidence  whatever  that  any 
mine  had  been  exploded  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Spanish 
authorities,  and  the  captain-general  and  other  officials  disa 
vowed  all  knowledge  of  the  cause  of  the  disaster.  The  govern 
ment  at  Madrid,  moreover,  made  haste  to  express  its  regrets 
and  sympathy. 

662.  Outburst  of  Public  Sentiment.  —  When  the  report  of  the 
investigation  was  made  public,  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
stimulated   by  the  pulpit  and  the  press,  seemed  to  take  the 
matter  into  their  own  hands.     Flags  suddenly  flew  out  from 
public  buildings  and  schoolhouses  in  all  parts  of  the  land.     In 
theaters   and   cafes   audiences   cheered   and   sprang  to   their 
feet  whenever  the  flag  was  displayed  or  the  "  Star  Spangled 
Banner"  was  sung.     The  nation  throbbed  with  an  indignant 
enthusiasm.    "  Remember  the  Maine  "  was  printed  arid  shouted 
everywhere.     No  such  outburst   of   public  feeling   had  been 
seen  since  1861 ;   nor  was  it  confined  to  any  one  section  of 
the  country.     The  South  was  not  behind  the  North  and  West 
in  demanding  prompt  action. 

663.  Action  of  Congress  and  of  the  President.  —  Members  of 
Congress,  especially  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  were  the 
first  to  feel  the  significance  of  the  public  demand,  and  they 
proceeded  at  once  to  urge  decisive  action  upon  the  President. 
President  McKinley  used  the  resources  of  diplomacy  to  induce 
the  Spanish  government  to  withdraw  from  the  island.     They 
made  promises  not  fully  credited  or  published,1  and  on  the  8th 
of  March,  1898,  the  President  requested  from  Congress  an  ap 
propriation  of  fifty  million  dollars  for  national  defense.     The 
appropriation  was  made  without  a  dissenting  vote.     With  this 
sum  coast  fortifications  were  strengthened,  vessels  and  naval 

1  It  is  still  too  early  to  pass  definite  judgment  upon  this  and  other  points. 


518  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  664 

supplies  were  purchased  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  a 
number  of  fast  vessels  were  leased  to  form  an  auxiliary  fleet. 
On  the  llth  of  April  the  President  sent  a  special  message  to 
Congress,  in  which  he  recited  the  practices  of  the  Spanish 
government  in  Cuba,  and  referred  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Maine  as  evidence  of  Spanish  inability  to  restrain  lawless 
ness  and  misrule.  His  conclusion  was,  that  forcible  interfer 
ence  would  now  be  justified.  Congress  immediately  responded, 
and  on  the  19th  of  April,  the  anniversary  of  the  battles  of 
Lexington  and  Concord,  adopted  resolutions  declaring  that 
Cuba  ought  to  be  independent.  This  was  practically  a  declara 
tion  of  war.1 

664.  Delay  in  the  Opening  of  the  War.  —  The  opening  of  the 
war  on  land  was  delayed  by  the  fact  that  the  regular  army  was 
small,  and  the  lighting  force  had  to  be  made  up  largely  of  vol 
unteers.     During  April  and  May  the  President  called  for  two 
hundred  thousand  men.     The  regular  army  was  also  increased 
from  twenty-seven  thousand  to  sixty-two  thousand.     Besides 
these,  there  were  enlisted  ten  thousand  immunes,  or  men  who 
had  already  had  yellow  fever,  thirty-five  hundred  engineers,  and 
three  thousand  special  cavalrymen,  known  as  "  Kough  Riders," 
consisting  largely  of  "  cow-boys  "  and  such  others  as  had  had 
experience  in  daring  horsemanship. 

665.  General  Character  of  the  War.  —  The  war  was  a  short  one. 
In  advance  it  was  popularly  supposed  that  the  Spanish  navy 
was    somewhat   stronger   than    the   American.      Accordingly, 
there  was  not  a  little  fear  on  the  part  of  the  cities  along  the 
Northern    coast.      But   as    soon   as   hostilities    began    it   was 
found  that  the  Spanish  service  was  honeycombed  with  ineffi 
ciency  and  corruption.     On  their  war  vessels  nothing  seemed 
to  be  in  good  fighting  order.     Beyond  the  fact  that  the  army 
was  equipped  with  Mauser  rifles  and  smokeless  powder,  noth 
ing  in  the  Spanish  service  seemed  what  it  should  be  for  the 
vigorous  prosecution  of  war.     The  consequence  was,  that  on 

1  The  Act  of  May  25  fixed  the  opening  of  the  war  as  taking  place  on  April  21. 


§667] 


THE   WAR   WITH   SPAIN. 


519 


land  and  on  sea  the  American  forces  found  victory  compara 
tively  easy. 

666.  The  First  Great  Victory.  —  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
the  American  Asiatic  fleet,  in  command  of  Commodore  George 
Dewey,1  was  stationed  at  Hong  Kong.     Under  international 
rules  Dewey  was  obliged  to  with 
draw    from    that    neutral     port 

within  eight  days.  He  received 
orders  from  the  President  to  pro 
ceed  to  the  Spanish  archipelago  of 
the  Philippines  and  capture  or  de 
stroy  the  Spanish  fleet.  Dewey 
found  the  fleet  in  Manila  Bay, 
at  daybreak  of  May  1,  1898,  and 
opened  fire  at  once.  The  result 
was  a  victory  almost  unique  in 
naval  warfare.  The  Americans' 
fire  was  terribly  effective.  It  is 
said  that  a  single  shot  which  ex 
ploded  in  the  Spanish  flag-ship, 
struck  down  the  captain  and  sixty 
men.  The  Spaniards  fought  with 
great  bravery,  but  finally  lost  ten  war  vessels  and  a  transport. 
On  the  American  side  not  a  man  was  killed  and  only  eight 
were  slightly  wounded. 

667.  The   Investment  of   Santiago.  —  On  the   day  after  the 
declaration  of   war,  the  President  ordered   the  fleet  at   Key 

1  Born  in  Vermont,  1837.  Entered  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1854, 
and  graduated  in  1858 ;  was  midshipman  in  the  Mediterranean  till  outbreak 
of  the  war  in  1861 ;  was  assigned  to  the  West  Gulf  Squadron ;  was  with  Farra- 
gut  at  the  passing  of  Forts  St.  Philip  and  Jackson ;  served  later  on  several 
vessels  of  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron ;  promoted  to  he  commander,  1872 ; 
captain,  1884 ;  commodore,  1896 ;  appointed  to  command  the  Asiatic  Squadron, 
January,  1898;  fought  the  battle  of  Manila,  May  1,  1898;  upon  his  return  to 
America  was  greeted  with  great  demonstrations  of  favor  in  New  York  and 
other  cities;  rear  admiral,  1898;  admiral,  1899. 


ADMIRAL  GEORGE  DEWEY. 


520 


McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909. 


[§668 


West  to  sail  at  once  to  blockade  the  coast  of  Cuba.  Prepara 
tions  for  invasion  were  made  with  all  possible  rapidity ;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  22d  of  June  that  the  advance,  under  Major 

General  William  R.  Shaf  ter,1 
landed  for  an  attack  upon 
Santiago,  the  principal  city 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island.  On  the  23d,  a  for 
ward  movement  was  made 
by  the  First  and  Tenth 
Cavalry,  and  by  the  First 
United  States  Volunteer 
Cavalry,  commonly  known 
as  the  "  Rough  Riders," 
under  Colonel  Leonard 
WTood  and  Lieutenant 
Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
The  lines  were  rapidly  ex 
tended  toward  the  north 
and  west.  On  July  1,  a 
severe  battle  took  place  and  the  outworks  of  the  city  were 
reached.  El  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill  were  taken  by  storm, 
after  desperate  charges  and  heavy  losses.  The  investment  of 
the  city  was  then  practically  complete. 

668.  Admiral  Cervera's  Movement. — Before  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  a  Spanish  squadron  under  Admiral  Cervera  assembled 
at  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  in  April  sailed  for  the  Carib 
bean  Sea.  Its  destination  was  for  some  days  in  doubt,  and  an 
attack  on  the  New  England  coast  was  feared ;  but  on  the  19th 
of  May  it  secretly  entered  the  harbor  of  Santiago  de  Cuba. 
The  North  Atlantic  Squadron,  under  Commodore  William  T. 

iBorn  in  Michigan,  1835.  Entered  Union  army,  1861;  brevet  brigadier 
general,  1865;  entered  regular  army  as  lieutenant  colonel,  1867;  colonel, 
March,  1879;  brigadier  general,  May,  1897;  called  to  Tampa,  Florida,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War;  led  expedition  against  Santiago  de  Cuba;  com« 
manded  Departments  of  California  and  Columbia,  1899-1901;  retired,  1901. 


GENERAL  W.  R.  SHAFTER. 


THE   WAR  WITH  SPAIN. 


521 


Sampson,1  was  searching  for  the  enemy,  and  soon  discovered 
his  hiding  place.2  In  order  to  prevent  the  Spanish  army  and 
navy  from  concentrating  their 
forces  at  Santiago,  attacks  had 
been  made  on  several  cities  on 
the  coast  of  Cuba ;  but  these 
had  produced  no  important  re 
sults.  To  prevent  Cervera's 
escape,  Lieutenant  It.  P.  Hob- 
son,  with  seven  volunteers,  at 
tempted,  early  in  the  morning  of 
the  3d  of  June,  by  sinking  the 
coaling  ship  Merrimac  under 
the  guns  of  the  forts,  to  block 
the  narrow  passage  in  the 
mouth  of  Santiago  harbor. 
Though  this  exploit  did  not 
accomplish  what  was  hoped 
for,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
rudder  of  the  Merrimac  was  shot  away,  it  was  perhaps  the  most 
gallant  and  daring  single  exploit  of  the  war.  The  members 
of  the  party  were  showered  with  shot,  but  received  no  serious 
wounds,  and  all  were  picked  up  by  the  Spaniards,  Hobson 
being  helped  into  the  launch  by  Admiral  Cervera  himself. 


ADMIRAL  W.  T.  SAMPSON. 
[Copyright  by  E.  Chickering,  1900.] 


1  Born  in  New  York,  1840;  died,  1902.    Graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class 
at  Annapolis,  1860 ;  promoted  to  master,  1861 ;  lieutenant,  1862 ;  was  execu 
tive  officer  on  the  Patapsco  when  it  was  blown  up  in  Charleston  harbor,  and 
was  blown  into  the  water;  lieutenant  commander,  1866;  commander,  1874; 
superintendent  of  Naval  Academy,  1886-1890;   studied  with  great  care  all 
branches  of  the  service,  but  more  especially  those  of  ordnance  and  the  defen 
sive  armor  of  war  vessels;  was  president  of  the  Board  of  Inquiry  into  the 
causes  of  the  destruction  of  the  Maine ;  commanded   the  North  Atlantic 
Squadron,  with  rank  of  acting  rear  admiral,  in  the  battle  with  Admiral 
Cervera,  July  3,  1898;  promoted  to  rear  admiral,  September,  1898. 

2  Just  about  this  time  considerable  anxiety  was  felt  as  to  the  fate  of  the 
battleship  Oregon,  which  had  left  San  Francisco  in  March,  under  Captain 
Charles  E.  Clark.    After  a  voyage  of  fourteen  thousand  miles,  she  finally 
reached  Key  West  on  May  26,  and  served  in  the  battle  of  Santiago. 


522  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§669 

669.  The  Decisive  Engagement  of  the  War.  —  The  Spanish 
government  saw  clearly  that  Cervera  must  either  escape  from 
the  harbor  of  Santiago,  or  be  taken  prisoner  with  all  his  ships. 
Accordingly,  the  admiral  was  ordered  to  leave  the  harbor  on  the 
first  practicable  opportunity.  He  chose  the  morning  of  Sun 
day,  July  3.  The  resulting  battle  was  as  remarkable  as  the 
battle  of  Manila.1  In  less  than  three  hours  all  the  Spanish 
ships,  besides  the  torpedo  boats,  were  either  destroyed  or  run 
ashore.  The  Spanish  admiral  and  thirteen  hundred  of  his 


THE  "OREGON." 

men  were  taken  prisoners,  while  about  six  hundred  were  either 
killed  or  drowned.  On  the  American  side  but  oiie  man  was 
killed  and  one  man  wounded.  The  capitulation  of  Santiago 
and  the  entire  eastern  end  of  Cuba  followed,  the  Spaniards 
surrendering  twenty -three  thousand  men,  —  a  force  considera 
bly  larger  than  that  of  the  besieging  army.  The  work  of  the 
navy  was  generally  conceded  to  have  been  admirable ;  but  the 
conduct  of  the  campaign  on  land  was  harshly  criticised  in 
many  quarters. 

1  The  American  squadron,  with  Commodore  Sampson  in  command,  had 
long  been  watching  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  day  and  night.  On  the  morning 
of  July  3,  Sampson  started  for  a  consultation  with  Shafter,  who  was  some  miles 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  bay.  Before  going  he  had  left  specific  directions 
as  to  methods  of  action  in  case  of  Cervera's  appearance.  Sampson  was  some 
miles  away  when  the  approach  of  the  Spanish  fleet  was  detected.  Though  he 
returned  at  once,  he  reached  his  fleet  only  at  the  close  of  the  engagement,  in 
which  Commodore  Schley  (§  685)  was  the  highest  officer  taking  active  part. 


670] 


THE   WAR   WITH   SPAIN. 


523 


670.  Concluding  Scenes  of  the  War.  —  General  Nelson  A. 
Miles,1  with  a  force  of  about  seventeen  thousand  men,  landed 
on  the  island  of  Porto 
Rico  (July  28),  as  soon 
as  it  became  known 
that  his  troops  would 
not  be  needed  at  Santi 
ago.  The  Porto  Eicans 
offered  very  slight  re 
sistance,  and  before  the 
middle  of  August  the 
island  was  in  the  pos 
session  of  the  Ameri 
cans.  Manila,  the  capi 
tal  city  of  the  Philip 
pine  Islands,  was  also 
assaulted  by  the  land 
and  naval  forces,  and 
after  a  brief  resistance 
surrendered  uncondi 
tionally,  on  the  13th  of 
August.  In  every  en 
gagement  of  the  war, 
the  American  soldiers 
and  sailors  behaved 

with  great  gallantry.  But  the  management  of  affairs  by  the 
War  Department  was,  to  say  the  least,  unfortunate  in  many 
respects.  There  was  great  confusion  in  the  matter  of  furnish 
ing  the  troops  with  supplies,  and  the  quality  of  the  food  pro- 

1  Born  in  Massachusetts,  1839.  Entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  in  1861 ; 
became  a  major  general  of  volunteers,  and  commanded  an  army  corps  at  the 
age  of  twenty-five ;  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  numerous  battles ;  entered 
the  regular  army  at  the  close  of  the  war ;  conducted  many  campaigns  against 
Indians  on  the  frontier ;  commanded  the  United  States  troops  at  Chicago  dur 
ing  the  strikes  of  1894;  appointed  general  in  chief  of  United  States  Army, 
1895 ;  commanded  the  army  during  the  war  with  Spain ;  appointed  lieutenant 
general,  1900;  retired,  1903. 


GENERAL  NELSON  A.  MILES. 


524  McKINLEY  AND  ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  671 

vided  was  in  some  instances  so  bad  that  influential  officers  had 
to  remonstrate  against  a  condition  of  affairs  that  demoralized 
the  soldiers  and  exposed  them  to  disease.  Even  in  camps 
situated  within  the  United  States,  sickness  and  disorder  were 
common;  and  so  loud  an  outcry  was  raised  against  official 
mismanagement  that  the  President  appointed  a  commission  to 
investigate  the  matter.  The  commission,  in  its  report,  was 
unexpectedly,  and  many  thought  unduly,  favorable  to  the 
War  Department. 

CONSEQUENCES  OF  THE   WAR. 

671.  The    Treaty  of    Peace.  —  On   the   26th   of  July,   the 
Spanish  government  made  overtures  for  peace.     After  vari 
ous  delays,  a  preliminary  agreement,  or  protocol,  was  signed, 
August  12.     President  McKinley  at  once  issued  a  proclama 
tion,  suspending  hostilities.      It  was  agreed:  (1)  that  Spain 
should  withdraw  its  troops  from  Cuba  and  renounce  its  author 
ity  over  that  island ;  (2)  that  it  should  cede  the  island  of  Porto 
E-ico  to  the  United  States ;  (3)  that  it  should  transfer  to  the 
United  States  one  of  the  Caroline  Islands ;  and  (4)  that  the 
future  of  the  Philippine  Islands  should  be  determined  by  a  joint 
commission  of  the  two  powers  appointed  to  arrange  the  details 
of  the  treaty.     According  to  the  provisions  of  this  protocol, 
the  joint  commission  met  in  Paris,  on  the  1st  of  October,  1898, 
and,  after  long  discussion  of  different  points,  signed  the  final 
treaty  on  the  10th  of  December,  1898.     This  was  ratified  by  the 
United  States  on  the  6th  of  February,  and  by  Spain  on  the 
17th  of  March,  1899.     By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  United 
States  assumed  a  protectorate  over  Cuba ;  came  into  complete 
possession  of  Porto  Eico;  received  all  right  and  title  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  in  consideration  of  twenty  million  dollars ; 
and  received  the  island  of  Guam  in  the  Ladrones  Islands. 

672.  The  Annexation  of  Hawaii. — In  the  summer  of  1898 
it  became   apparent   to   the   government   that    certain   naval 
advantages  would  be  derived  from  the  annexation  of  Hawaii. 


To  /ace  />.  52 


§673]  CONSEQUENCES  OF  THE   WAR.  525 

The  long  passage  from  San  Francisco  to  the  Philippine  Islands 
called  for  an  intermediate  station  for  coal  and  other  naval 
stores.  Accordingly,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  President 
and  as  a  military  measure,  Congress  acceded  to  the  wishes  of 
the  Hawaiian  government,  and  annexed  the  islands  by  means 
of  a  resolution,  as  had  been  done  in  the  case  of  Texas. 

673.  Revolt  in  the  Philippines.  —  Before  the  outbreak  of  the 
Spanish  War,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines,  like  those  of 
Cuba,  had  been  in  a  chaotic  state  of  discontent.  Uprisings 
against  the  Spanish  government  had  been  frequent,  but  these 
had  generally  been  put  down  with  great  severity.  A  struggle 
for  independence  had  been  going  on  just  before  the  Spanish- 
American  war  broke  out;  but  the  leader,  Aguinaldo,  had  given 
up  the  task,  in  consideration  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  had 
gone  to  Hong  Kong.  Imagining  that  American  success  would 
result  in  the  freedom  of  the  Philippines,  he  returned  to  Manila 
on  the  American  fleet  and  cooperated,  with  his  followers,  in  the 
operations  against  Manila.  Soon  after  peace  was  assured  be 
tween  the  United  States  and  Spain,  he  raised  the  standard  of 
independence,  in  consequence  of  disappointment  at  the  transfer 
of  the  Philippines  to  the  United  States  and  of  the  terms  used 
by  President  McKinley  in  a  proclamation  issued  to  the  inhabit 
ants  of  the  islands.  As  might  have  been  expected  from  the  fact 
that  the  opposing  lines  of  forces  were  stationed  close  to  one 
another,  hostilities  were  not  long  avoided.  Aguinaldo's  extem 
porized  government  and  authority  were  in  the  main  limited  to 
the  island  of  Luzon,  and  his  chief  reliance  was  upon  the  single 
tribe  of  the  Tagals.  The  natives  were  never  able  to  resist 
successfully  the  advances  of  the  American  troops,  but  they 
had  possession  of  a  large  number  of  towns  and  villages,  and 
these  had  to  be  taken,  often  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Hos 
tilities  were  protracted  by  the  rainy  season,  and  by  the  fact 
that  the  Filipinos  were  divided  into  many  inaccessible  bands. 
No  battle  of  any  great  importance  was  fought ;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  spring  of  1900  that  the  revolt  dwindled  into  guerrilla 


526  McKlNLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  674 

warfare.  A  year  later  (March,  1901),  Aguinaldo  was  captured 
through  stratagems  devised  by  General  Frederick  Funston. 
The  Filipino  chieftain  then  issued  a  manifesto,  urging  sub 
mission  to  American  authority. 

674.  Pacification  of  the  Philippines.  —  His  advice  was  largely 
followed,  and  the  Philippine  Commission,  under  the  presidency 
of  Judge  William  H.  Taft  of  Ohio,  was  soon  able  to  report  great 
progress  in  pacification.     Many  hundreds  of  American  school 
teachers  were  sent  to  the  islands,  and  American  energy  was  at 
once  shown  in  improving  sanitary  conditions  and  in  exploiting 
natural  resources.     But  spasmodic  fighting  has  not  ceased,  and 
it  is  believed  by  many  persons  that  the  Filipinos  are  far  from 
really  pacified.    This  is  probably  more  true  of  outlying  islands 
like  Samar,  where  a  small  detachment  of  troops  was  almost 
exterminated,  than  of   Luzon,  the  center  of   administration. 
The  authorities  at  Washington   have  expressed   their  deter 
mination  to  put  an  end  to  every  form  of  barbarism  existing 
in  the  Philippines,  and,  owing  to  charges  of  cruel  conduct  that 
haye  been  brought  against  American  officers  and  troops,  have 
instituted  courts-martial  for  the  purpose  of  trying  officers  and 
soldiers  charged  with  countenancing  or  inflicting  unusual  pun 
ishments,  such  as  the  mode  of  torture  known  as  the  "  water 
cure."     It  seems  clear  that  although  there  has  been  among  the 
American  troops  some  of  that  demoralization  which  always 
shows  itself  when  war  is  conducted,  in  tropical  countries  and 
against  weaker  races,  the  great  mass  of  the  American  forces  in 
the  Philippines  have  performed  their  duties  satisfactorily.    The 
exact  status  of  the  islands  with  regard  to  the  United  States  is 
still  unsettled,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  permanent  possession 
of  them  is  desired  by  a  majority  of  the  American  people. 

675.  Opposition  to  the  War.  —  It  should  not  be  supposed  that 
the  course  of  the  government  in  the  Spanish  War  .met  with  the 
approval  of  the  entire  people.     There  were  not  a  few  who  more 
or  less  vigorously  opposed  the  declaration  of  war  in  behalf  of 
the  Cuban  'sufferers,  and  the  number  was  increased  when  it 


§  677]   CLOSE  OF  McKINLEY'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION.      527 

was  seen  that  victory  involved  territorial  enlargement  and  an 
increase  of  political  responsibilities.  The  most  active  opposi 
tion  had  its  center  in  Boston.  The  claim  was  made  that  the 
acquisition  of  new  territory  showed  a  tendency  to  imperialism 
that  was  not  justified  either  by  the  United  States  Constitution 
or  by  the  political  principles  or  customs  of  the  country.  Atten 
tion  was  repeatedly  called  to  the  clause  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  which  declares  that  the  basis  of  just  government 
is  the  "  consent  of  the  governed."  It  was  further  asserted  that 
the  new  possessions  would  increase  the  tendencies  to  political 
corruption,  and  would  exert  an  unwholesome  influence  on  the 
government  at  home.  In  opposition  to  these  views,  the  Presi 
dent,  and  apparently  a  large  majority  of  the  people,  held  that 
there  was  no  more  constitutional  objection  to  the  acquisition 
of  insular  territory  than  there  had  been  to  the  acquisition  of 
Louisiana,  California,  or  Alaska.  The  advocates  of  the  so- 
called  "  expansion  policy,"  furthermore,  would  not  admit  that 
added  political  responsibilities  would  increase  a  tendency  to 
corrupt  government,  and  they  claimed  that,  in  view  of  interna 
tional  tendencies,  the  country  needed  the  newly  acquired  terri 
tory,  in  order  to  protect  its  interests  in  the  far  East. 

676.  Government   of   Newly   Acquired   Territories.  —  On  the 

recommendation  of  the  President,  Congress  provided  territorial 
governments  not  only  for  Hawaii,  Guam,  and  Porto  Rico,  but  also 
for  Alaska.  These  governments  were  framed  with  the  inten 
tion  of  developing  free  institutions  as  rapidly  as  the  intelligence 
and  character  of  the  inhabitants  would  admit.  Cuba  was  tem 
porarily  put  under  the  control  of  a  military  government,  which 
was  instituted  |.n  order  to  set  the  wheels  of  a  competent  local 
government  in  motion.  The  President  proclaimed  his  purpose 
to  turn  over  the  government  of  the  island  to  the  Cubans  as  soon 
as  order  and  a  prospect  of  peace  had  been  established. 

THE  CLOSE  OF  McKINLEY'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION. 

677.  Financial  Reform.  —  The  second  Congress  of  McKinley's 
first  administration  early  took  into  consideration  the  vexed 


528  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  678 

question  of  the  currency,  and  also  discussed  banking  laws  and 
refunding  the  national  debt.  The  legislation  finally  adopted, 
which  went  into  effect  March  14,  1900,  placed  the  entire 
currency  of  the  country  on  a  gold  basis,  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  national  banks  in  the  smaller  towns  and 
villages,  and  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  issue 
long-time  two  per  cent  bonds,  with  the  income  of  which  the 
shorter-time  three,  four,  and  five  per  cent  bonds  were  to  be 
called  in  and  paid.  The  success  of  the  refunding  measure  was 
a  remarkable  evidence  of  the  firm  basis  on  which  the  credit  of 
the  country  was  now  established.  Though  the  new  bonds  sold 
at  par,  within  two  months  of  the  passage  of  the  bill  more  than 
two  hundred  and  sixty  millions  of  the  old  bonds  had  been 
refunded  at  the  lower  rate.  The  significance  of  this  success 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  while  this  process  bf  refunding 
with  a  two  per  cent  bond  was  going  on,  the  lowest  Kussian 
bonds  were  bearing  four  per  cent ;  the  lowest  French  bonds, 
three  and  a  half  per  cent;  the  lowest  bonds  of  the  German 
Empire,  three  per  cent ;  and  the  lowest  bonds  of  Great  Britain, 
two  and  three-fourths  per  cent.  For  the  first  time  in  its  his 
tory,  it  might  fairly  be  claimed  that  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  was  the  best  in  the  world. 

678.  Presidential  Candidates  in  1900.  — As  the  end  of  McKin- 
ley's  term  approached,  it  became  evident  that  there  would  be 
no  opposition  in  the  Republican  party  to  his  renomination. 
The  Convention  met  in  Philadelphia,  June  19,  and  adopted  a 
platform  which  indorsed  McKinley's  policy  of  government  in 
Porto  Kico,  in  Cuba,  and  in  Hawaii,  and  also  advocated  the 
retention  of  the  Philippine  Islands  under  conditions  that  would 
secure  for  them  local  self-government  as  rapidly  as  the  con 
dition  and  spirit  of  the  people  would  permit.  Interest  was 
chiefly  centered  in  the  nomination  of  a  candidate  for  the  Vice 
Presidency.  There  were  three  prominent  candidates,  each  with 
strong  local  support,  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  But  as 
soon  as  the  delegates  assembled,  it  became  apparent  that  there 


§  678]  CLOSE  OF  McKINLEY'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION.      529 

was  a  great  popular  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  nomination  of 
Governor  Theodore  Roosevelt,1  of  New  York.      He  was  not 


THEODORE  KOOSEVELT. 
[Copyright  by  Pach  Brothers,  New  York.] 

only  not  a  candidate,  but  with  great  earnestness  besought  the 
delegations  from  the  different  states  not  to  put  forward  his 
name.  But  he  had  distinguished  himself  by  his  work  on  the 

ifiorn  in  New  York,  1858.  Graduated  at  Harvard,  1880;  member  of  New 
York  legislature,  1882-1884;  chairman  of  National  Board  of  Civil  Service 
Commissioners,  1889-1895  ;  president  of  New  York  Police  Board,  1895-1897; 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  1897-1898;  resigned  to  organize  the  First 
United  States  Volunteer  Cavalry,  commonly  known  as  "  Roosevelt's  Rough 
Riders  " ;  distinguished  himself  in  action  before  Santiago ;  elected  governor 
of  New  York,  1898 ;  nominated  for  Vice  President,  June,  1900 ;  elected  in 


530  McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  679 

Civil  Service  Commission,  as  a  police  commissioner  of  New 
York  City,  as  a  brave  and  picturesque  commander  of  the  Bough 
Eiders  in  the  Spanish  war,  and  as  an  honest  and  intelligent 
governor  of  New  York,  and  his  energetic  opposition  to  being 
put  forward  as  a  candidate  was  of  no  avail.  McKinley  received 
every  vote  in  the  convention,  on  the  first  ballot ;  and  Roosevelt, 
who  sat  in  the  convention,  received  every  vote  excepting  his 
own.  On  the  5th  of  July  the  Democratic  Convention,  at  Kan 
sas  City,  nominated,  with  equal  unanimity,  William  J.  Bryan 
for  President,  and  ex-Vice  President  Adlai  Stevenson  of  Illinois, 
for  Vice  President.  The  Democratic  platform  was  vigorous  in 
its  expressions  of  opposition  toMcKinley's  policy  of  expansion, 
promised  legislation  against  "trusts,  and  declared  anew  its  ad 
vocacy  of  free  coinage  of  silver  at  a  ratio  of  sixteen  to  one. 
The  impossibility  of  uniting  all  interests  in  these  two  candi 
dates  for  the  Presidency  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  ten  other 
candidates  were,  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  put  in  the  field 
by  various  small  parties. 

679.  Reelection  of  McKinley.  —  After  an  interesting  but  not 
exciting  campaign,  in.  which  the  maintenance  of  the  financial 
standing  of   the  country,  rather  than  the  approval  or  disap 
proval  of  the  so-called  "  imperial "  system,  became  the  para 
mount   question,  McKinley  and  Roosevelt  were  elected  over 
Bryan  and  Stevenson  by  the  large  majority  of  two  hundred 
and  ninety-two  electoral  votes  to  one  hundred  and  fifty-five. 
McKinley's    popular   majority   was   even   greater    than   that 
received  by  him  in  1896. 

680.  Foreign  Affairs.  —  During  the  summer  of  1900,  public 
attention  was  distracted  from  the  Philippines  to  China,  where 
the  Boxer  uprising  put  foreign  residents,  especially  mission 
aries,  in  great  jeopardy.     The  United  States  joined  the  chief 
nations  of  Europe  in  sending  forces  to  China.     These  troops 

November,  1900;  succeeded  to  the  Presidency  on  the  death  of  President 
McKiuley,  in  September,  1901 ;  nominated  and  elected  President  in  1904.  Is 
the  author  of  a  number  of  historical  works. 


§682]  McKlNLEY'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION.  531 

behaved  well ;  and  in  the  subsequent  diplomatic  negotiations, 
President  McKinley  and  his  Secretary  of  State,  John  Hay, 
won  much  praise  for  their  moderate  and  statesmanlike  course 
of  action.  The  latter  gained  great  credit  also  for  his  efforts 
to  secure  an  agreement  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  with  regard  to  the  control  of  any  interoceanic  canal 
that  might  be  undertaken  in  Central  America.  The  treaty, 
as  modified  by  the  Senate,  was  rejected  by  Great  Britain ;  but 
after  concessions  on  both  sides,  a  new  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty 
was  finally  ratified  (December  16,  1901),  which  secured  to 
America  complete  control  of  any  such  canal. 

681.  Domestic  Affairs.  —  Among  the  most  important  domestic 
events  of  the  close  of  McKinley's  first  term  were  the  exclusion 
from   Congress  of  the  polygamist  Representative  Roberts  of 
Utah;  the  unfortunate  contest  for  the  governorship  of  Ken 
tucky,  which  resulted  in  the  assassination  of  the  Democratic 
contestant,  Mr.  Goebel;  and  the  terrible  storm  which  devas 
tated  the  city  of  Galveston,  Texas.     The  completion  of  the 
twelfth  census  in  1900  showed  a  total  population  of  76,303,387, 
and  an  increase  of  wealth  and  industrial  power  so  marvelous 
as   to   promise   almost   incredible   achievements   in   the   near 
future.     On  February  28,  1901,  an  act  was  passed  reducing 
the  taxes  that  had  been  levied  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
Spanish  War. 

McKlNLEY'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION. 

682.  Second  Inauguration  of  McKinley.  — President  McKinley 
entered  upon  his  second  term  of  office  on  March  4,  1901,  and 
retained  the  Cabinet  as  it  stood  at  the  close  of  his  first  term. 
His  inaugural  address  emphasized  the  material  prosperity  of 
the  country  and  the  need  of  securing  foreign  markets  by  wise 
treaties  of  reciprocity.     This  liberal  policy  was  consistently  ad 
vocated  by  him  in  speeches  delivered  during  a  summer  tour  of 
the  country,  and  especially  in  one  made  at  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  at  Buffalo,  New  York. 


532  McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  683 

683.  The  Assassination  of  President  McKinley.  —  Immediately 
after  this  noteworthy  speech,  President  McKinley  was  taken 
from  the  nation  whose  affairs  he  was  guiding  with  an  ever 
steadier  hand.  On  September  6,  1901,  while  he  was  holding  a 
reception  in  the  Temple  of  Music  at  the  Buffalo  Exposition,  he 
was  shot  by  an  anarchist  who  had  concealed  a  revolver  under 
a  handkerchief  that  apparently  covered  a  wounded  hand.  The 
President  bore  himself  with  remarkable  dignity  and  courage, 
both  at  the  time  of  the  shooting  and  during  the  eight  days 
of  suffering  that  followed.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if  he  would 
recover;  but  on  September  14  he  died,  and  Vice  President 
Roosevelt  at  once  took  the  oath  of  office  as  President.  The 
whole  world  was  profoundly  shocked  by  the  tragedy,  and  the 
manifestations  of  popular  grief,  as  the  body  was  conveyed 
to  Washington  and  from  there  to  Canton,  Ohio,  were  extraor 
dinary.  On  September  19,  while  the  interment  was  taking 
place  at  Canton,  all  labor  was  suspended  throughout  the 
country.  Popular  indignation  was  naturally  directed  against 
anarchists  and  political  agitators  of  all  sorts ;  but,  in  the  main, 
the  people  restrained  themselves  in  a  most  praiseworthy  man 
ner.  The  trial  and  execution  of  the  assassin  were  conducted 
with  great  promptitude  and  decorum. 


ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

684.  The  New  President  and  His  Policies.  —  Upon  taking 
office,  President  Roosevelt  announced  that  he  would  continue 
the  policies  and  retain  the  Cabinet  of  his  predecessor.  It  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  such  a  pledge  would  be  kept  to  the 
letter,  since  the  new  Executive  differed  greatly  from  President 
McKinley  in  temperament  and  in  training,  and  was  soon  con 
fronted  with  a  new  combination,  if  not  precisely  a  new  set  of 
problems.  He  was  more  direct  and  vigorous  in  his  methods  of 
conducting  the  nation's  business,  more  impetuous  and  less  pol 
itic  in  his  relations  with  men  and  in  his  appeals  to  the  people 
for  support  of  his  measures.  His  honest,  fearless,  aggressive 


§685]  ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  533 

personality  soon  made  him  the  most  popular  of  modern  Presi 
dents  and  enabled  him  to  secure  a  considerable  amount  of  good 
legislation  and  to  put  his  own  stamp,  not  only  upon  the  national 
administration,  but  upon  the  general  course  of  politics  through 
out  the  country.  He  stood  for  an  efficient  civil  service,  clean 
if  somewhat  partisan  politics,  and  a  resolute  enforcement  of 
such  laws  as  affected  the  methods  of  business  employed  by 
monopolies  and  great  corporations.  He  soon  seemed  to  be  the 
representative  of  the  interests  of  the  many  as  opposed  to  those 
of  the  few,  and,  as  a  result,  he  was  praised  by  radicals  and  cen 
sured  by  conservatives.  In  consequence,  party  lines  began  to 
be  broken,  and  it  may  be  that  Mr.  Roosevelt's  greatest  service 
to  the  country  will  be  found  to  lie  in  the  personal  influence  he 
has  brought  to  bear  upon  the  task  of  wresting  his  own  party 
from  the  control  of  capital,  and  of  awakening  the  masses  of  the 
people  to  the  importance  of  preventing  the  chief  agencies  of 
production  and  transportation  from  falling  into  the  hands  of 
monopolists.  Perhaps  the  criticism  most  often  urged  against 
his  administration  is  his  failure  to  use  his  great  power  in  sup 
port  of  the  protests  made  throughout  the  country  against  the 
excessive  protective  tariff,  which  has  fostered  unfair  monopo 
lies  and  a  corrupt  use  of  money  in  politics. 

685.  The  President's  Chief  Advisers.  —  During  his  term  as 
successor  to  President  McKinley  and  throughout  his  term  as 
elected  President,  Mr.  Roosevelt's  Cabinet  underwent  many 
changes,  most  of  which  it  is  needless  to  specify.  The  secreta 
ries  of  the  various  departments,  to  whom  was  added  in  1903  a 
Secretary  of  Labor  and  Commerce,  formed  a  competent  body  of 
advisers  and  administrators,  but,  on  the  whole,  only  three 
strongly  impressed  themselves  upon  the  country.  These  were 
John  Hay,  who  took  charge  of  the  Department  of  State  under 
McKinley  and  retained  it  until  his  own  death  in  July,  1905 ; 
Elihu  Root,  who  continued  to  act  as  Secretary  of  War  until 
February,  1904,  and  then,  after  a  short  interval,  succeeded  Mr. 
Hay  in  the  Department  of  State ;  and  William  H.  Taft,  who 


534 


McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909. 


[§686 


relinquished  the  post  of  first  civil  governor  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  under  American  rule  to  become  Secretary  of  War  in 
place  of  Mr.  Root.  Under  both  secretaries  of  state  the  consular 
service  was  improved  and  the  influence  of  America  in  inter 
national  affairs  was  greatly  strengthened,  especially  by  Mr. 

Boot's  visit  to  many 
of  the  South  American 
states  in  1906.  Mr. 
Taft  brought  to  his  post 
a  unique  knowledge  of 
the  problems  of  colonial 
administration,  and  he 
was  soon  recognized  by 
the  country  as  a  skill- 
ful  administrator  and  a 
sound  and  sympathetic 
adviser  of  the  President 
in  all  the  phases  of  the 
latter' s  activity. 

686.  The  Schley  Court 
of  Inquiry.  —  Controver 
sies  growing  out  of  the 


ADMIRAL  W.  S.  SCHLEY. 
[Copyright  by  Pach  Brothers,  New  York.] 


claims  of  Rear  Admirals 
Sampson  and  Schley,1 
relative  to  the  battle  of  Santiago  (see  §  669,  note),  led  the  latter 
to  request  a  Court  of  Inquiry,  which  convened  at  Washington 


i  Born  in  Maryland,  1839.  Graduated  at  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
1860 ;  served  as  midshipman  in  Chinese  waters,  1860-1861 ;  was  in  West  Gulf 
Squadron,  1861-1864;  served  again  in  Chinese  waters,  1864 ;  became  lieu  tenant 
commander  in  1866;  on  duty  at  Naval  Academy,  1866-1869;  head  of  modern 
language  department  at  Annapolis,  1877-1878  ;  commander  in  1884;  com 
manded  the  successful  Greely  Relief  Expedition,  1884;  captain  In  1888;  com 
manded  the  Baltimore  and  settled  difficulties  at  Valparaiso,  1891 ;  carried 
Ericsson's  body  to  Sweden,  In  1891 ;  commanded  the  New  York,  and  was 
made  commodore  and  put  in  command  of  the  Flying  Squadron  in  Cuban 
waters,  1898 ;  was  senior  officer  at  the  destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet,  July  8. 
1898;  advanced  to  rear  admiral,  1899:  retired,  1901. 


§687]  ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  535 

in  September,  1901.  After  lengthy  proceedings,  the  Court, 
of  which  Admiral  Dewey  was  president,  brought  in  a  report 
that  partly  vindicated  and  partly  condemned  Admiral  Schley. 
The  latter,  whose  cause  had  won  great  popular  favor,  appealed 
to  President  Eoosevelt,  but  without  avail. 

687.  Political  Events  of  1902.  —  Shortly  after  the  accession 
of  the  new  President  the  attention  of  the  country  was  directed 
to  the  municipal  campaign  in  Greater  New  York,  which  re 
sulted  in  the  victory  of  a  reform  ticket  supported  by  Republi 
cans  and  Independents  over  the  Tammany  Hall  Democrats. 
The  reform  government  took  office  on  January  1,  1902,  and 
gave  the  city,  under  Seth  Low  as  Mayor,  an  effective  and  hon 
est  administration ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  did  not  prove  popular, 
and  Tammany  came  into  power  again  in  1904.1  People  had 
been  shown,  however,  that  municipal  and  State  reforms  could 
be  secured  if  voters  would  abandon  party  lines  and  act  together 
for  the  public  good,  and,  as  a  result,  the  past  few  years  have 
witnessed  much  improvement  in  local  legislation  and  adminis 
tration  throughout  the  country.  Meanwhile,  the  Fifty-seventh 
Congress,  which  began  its  first  session  in  December,  1901, 
accomplished  less  than  was  to  be  expected  in  view  of  the  large 
majority  possessed  by  the  Eepublicans.  Its  comparative 
inactivity  was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  on  the  evacuation  of 
Cuba  by  the  American  troops  (May,  1902)  and  the  setting  up 
of  a  republican  government  in  the  island,  it  seemed  desirable  for 
the  United  States  to  aid  the  weak  young  country  by  reducing 
the  tariff  duties  on  Cuban  sugar  and  tobacco.  The  President's 
efforts  to  secure  the  needed  legislation  were  blocked  for  a  con 
siderable  period  by  the  opposition  of  the  extreme  advocates  of 
protection.  It  proved  difficult,  also,  to  obtain  adequate  legis- 

1  The  new  mayor  was  George  B.  McClellan,  who  was  reflected  in  1905  for 
the  lengthened  term  of  four  years.  He  broke  with  Tammany  Hall  during  his 
second  administration.  In  1901  Judge  William  Travers  Jerome  was  elected 
District  Attorney  along  with  the  reform  ticket.  In  1905  he  stood  for  re 
election  as  an  independent  candidate,  and  his  victory  was  rightly  regarded 
as  a  good  sign  of  the  growth  of  independence  among  the  voters. 


536  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,  1897-1909.  [§  688 

lation  for  the  Philippines,  but  finally  an  act  was  passed  pro 
viding  for  their  temporary  government,  and  the  insurrection 
in  the  islands  was  proclaimed  to  be  at  an  end.  Another  subject 
which  occupied  Congress  was  the  choice  of  a  route  for  the 
proposed  interoceanic  canal.  The  Nicaraguan  route  seemed 
to  be  favored,  until  the  Panama  Company  offered  to  sell  its 
property  and  rights  for  $40,000,000.  This  offer  was  finally 
accepted,  and  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  authorized, 
provided  a  proper  title  to  the  route  were  secured  (June,  1902). 
The  Congressional  elections  in  the  autumn  of  1902  left  the 
Republicans  still  in  control,  but  with  a  reduced  majority. 

688.  The  Anthracite  Coal  Strike.  —  Popular  efforts  to  oppose, 
through  the  action  of  legislatures  and  courts,  oppressive  and 
illegal  accumulations  of  capital  in  so-called  trusts  and  combi 
nations,  and  struggles  between  organized  labor  and  capital, 
greatly  occupied  public  attention  throughout  the  year  1902. 
The  most  conspicuous  event  in  this  connection  was  the  strike  of 
the  anthracite  coal  miners  in  Pennsylvania,  which  lasted  from 
May  to  October  and  caused  considerable  suffering.  The  miners, 
who  were  led  with  much  intelligence  by  Mr.  John  Mitchell, 
President  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America,  were  will 
ing  to  submit  their  claims  to  arbitration,  a  fact  which  secured 
them  much  popular  sympathy.  The  mine  owners,  whose  chief 
spokesman  was  Mr.  George  F.  Baer,  President  of  the  Phila 
delphia  and  Beading  Railway  Company,  refused  to  arbitrate, 
and  attempted  to  work  their  property  with  non-union  miners. 
Rioting  followed,  and  the  militia  had  to  be  called  out ;  but  it 
was  the  rise  in  the  price  of  fuel  and  the  dread  of  a  coal  famine 
during  the  approaching  winter  that  most  alarmed  the  public 
and  that  finally  led  to  a  compromise.  The  situation  seemed 
so  threatening  that  President  Roosevelt,  acting  as  chief  citizen 
but  not  as  Executive,  called  a  conference  of  representatives  of 
the  owners  and  the  miners,  and  urged  them  for  the  sake  of  the 
country  to  arbitrate  their  differences.  The  owners  at  first 
stood  out  upon  their  rights,  —  which  were  regarded  by  many 


ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  537 

persons  as  doubtful,  —  but  they  finally  yielded,  and  a  commis 
sion  of  seven  arbitrators  was  appointed  by  the  President. 
The  commission  made  its  report  in  March,  1903,  decreeing 
certain  advances  in  wages,  but  forbidding  discrimination 
against  non-union  men.1 

689.  Events  and  Legislation  of  1903.  —  During  this  year  a 
treaty  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain  for  the  settlement  of 
the  dispute  between  Canada  and  the  United  States  as  to  the 
boundary  of  Alaska,  and  a  mixed  commission  was  appointed 
under  it,  which  met  in  London  and  rendered  a  decision  almost 
entirely  favorable  to  the  United  States.  A  reciprocity  treaty 
with  Newfoundland  was  also  concluded,  and,  in  general,  the  high 
reputation  won  for  American  diplomacy  by  Secretary  Hay  was 
sustained.  A  reciprocity  treaty  with  Cuba  designed  to  benefit 
the  planters  of  the  island  was,  however,  defeated,  and  it  was 
only  after  an  extra  session  of  the  Senate  and  one  of  the  Fifty- 
eighth  Congress  that  the  resistance  of  the  protectionists  was 
overcome,  and  tardy  concessions  were  made  to  Cuba.2  Mean 
while,  the  Fifty-seventh  Congress,  before  it  closed,  accomplished 
more  in  the  way  of  legislation  than  might  have  been  expected, 
in  view  of  the  bickerings  to  which  the  administration's  Cuban 


1  Another  event  of  great  popular  interest  marked  the  year  1902.    This  was 
the  friendly  visit  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  which  took  place  in  February 
and  March.    The  Prince  came  to  America  ostensibly  to  witness  the  launching 
of  a  new  yacht  built  for  his  brother,  the  Emperor  of  Germany;  but,  in  real 
ity,  his  mission  was  one  of  courtesy  and  amity  to  the  Republic.    He  was  re 
ceived  with  an  enthusiasm  not  equaled,  perhaps,  since  the  visit  of  Kossuth  in 
1852.    He  was  entertained  in  New  York  and  Washington,  and  was  especially 
welcomed  by  the  large  German'  population  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  Mil 
waukee.    He  won  great  favor  everywhere  by  his  simple  dignity,  and  did 
much  by  his  visit  to  further  the  cause  of  peace  and  international  good  will. 

2  The  bill  for  putting  the  reciprocity  convention  into  effect  was  finally 
passed  in  December,  1903 ;  that  is,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  session  of  the 
Fifty-eighth  Congress.    A  treaty  concluded  by  Secretary  Hay  and  the  Com 
missioner  of  the  republic  of  Colombia  for  the  purpose  of  securing  concessions 
necessary  to  the  inception  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  was  ratified  by  the  Senate 
only  after  an  extra  session  of  that  body  had  been  called  in  March,  1903.    (See 
§690.) 


538  McKINLEY  AND    ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§690 

policy  had  given  rise.  Bills  were  passed,  among  others,  which 
looked  to  the  regulation  of  trusts,  to  the  creation  of  a  general 
staff  for  the  army,  to  the  increase  of  the  navy,  and  to  the 
checking  of  undesirable  immigration.  Even  more  important 
to  the  welfare  of  the  country  was  the  firm  stand  taken  by  the 
President  in  ordering  the  fullest  investigation  of  gross  scandals 
in  the  administration  of  the  post  office,  and  in  other  departments 
of  governmental  activity.  The  year  was  marked  also  by  numer 
ous  important  strikes,1  by  many  race  riots,  which  were  not  con 
fined  to  the  South,  and  by  convictions  of  persons  accused  of 
holding  negroes  in  "  peonage.'7  2 

690.  Panama  and  the  Canal.  —  In  June,  1903,  the  Congress 
of  the  republic  of  Colombia  rejected  the  treaty  negotiated 
between  the  Colombian  commissioner  and  Secretary  Hay,  and 
proposals  were  made  to  the  United  States,  looking  to  Colombian 
sovereignty  over  the  zone  of  the  contemplated  canal.  These 
proposals  were  rejected,  and  in  their  anger  at  the  situation 
thus  created,  the  inhabitants  of  Panama  revolted  from  Co 
lombia  and  set  up  an  independent  republic.  This  was  at 
once  recognized  by  President  Roosevelt,  and  a  new  treaty  was 
concluded  with  it.  Though  these  steps  were  regarded  by  the 
Colombians,  and  even  by  some  Americans,  as  high-handed  and 
contrary  to  precedent,  they  were  extenuated  by  the  importance 
of  the  political  and  commercial  interests  involved  and  by  the 
necessity  of  safeguarding  the  United  States  from  intrigues 
designed  to  secure  a  heavy  payment  for  all  concessions.  For 
tunately  the  revolution  at  Panama  led  to  no  serious  disturbances 
either  in  its  inception  or  in  its  consequences.  The  presence  of 
American  battleships  prevented  Colombia  from  landing  troops 
to  recover  the  seceded  state,  and  the  efforts  made  by  the 
Colombian  special  envoy  to  induce  the  government  at  Wash- 

1  There  were  also  many  strikes  in  1904,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  of  the 
Colorado  coal  mines.  Much  disorder  was  created,  and  the  Cripple  Creek  region 
had  to  be  placed  under  martial  law. 

2  That  is,  involuntary  servitude  based  originally  upon  the  inability  of  the 
negroes  to  pay  fines. 


§691]  ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  539 

ingtoii  to  abandon  Panama  to  its  fate  were  fruitless.  In 
February,  1904,  the  new  treaty  with  Panama  was  ratified  by 
the  United  States  Senate.  Shortly  afterward  a  decision  in 
a  French  court  entirely  cleared  the  title  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Company  to  dispose  of  its  property  and  rights  to  the  United 
States,  and  about  the  same  time  the  commissioners  for  the  con 
struction  of  the  canal  were  appointed,  and  preliminary  work  was 
begun.1 

691.  Campaign  of  1904.  —  Although  the  first  session  of  the 
Fifty-eighth  Congress  was  not  devoid  of  interest  or  unproduc 
tive  of  important  legislation,  public  attention  was  mainly  cen 
tered  throughout  1904,  so  far  as  concerned  politics,  upon  the 
selection  of  Presidential  candidates  and  upon  the  subsequent 
campaign.  Although  President  Eoosevelt  had  alienated  some 
of  the  important  Eepublican  politicians  and  had  caused  himself 
to  be  dreaded  by  many  financiers,  capitalists,  and  business 
men,  opposition  to  his  nomination  could  not  be  concentrated, 
and  the  death  of  Senator  Hanna,  of  Ohio,  left  him  without 
a  possible  rival.  His  personal  popularity  throughout  the 
entire  country,  the  general  prosperity  of  the  people,  and  the 
inability  of  the  Democrats  to  find  any  large,  striking  issue 
upon  which  to  appeal  to  the  voters,  rendered  the  candidacy  of 
the  President  very  strong.  On  June  23  he  was  therefore 
nominated  unanimously  by  the  Republican  Convention,  which 
met  at  Chicago,  and  Senator  Charles  W.  Fairbanks  of  Indiana 
was  unanimously  nominated  for  Vice  President.  The  Demo 
cratic  Convention  met  at  St.  Louis,  and  on  July  9  nominated 
for  President,  on  the  first  ballot,  Judge  Alton  B.  Parker  of 
New  York.  Ex-Senator  Henry  G.  Davis,  an  octogenarian  of 
West  Virginia,  was  nominated  for  Vice  President.  The  norni- 

1  Throughout  1904  and  1905,  there  was  much  changing  of  commissioners, 
the  preliminary  work  of  sanitation  went  slowly  and  not  altogether  success 
fully,  and  difficulty  was  experienced  in  retaining  the  services  of  skilled 
engineers.  Nevertheless,  although  it  was  soon  seen  that  the  first  estimates 
of  time  and  cost  were  far  too  small,  the  administration  kept  steadily  at  its 
great  task,  and  before  long  reasonable  progress  could  be  reported. 


540  McKINLEY  AND  ROOSEVELT,   1897-1909.  [§692 

nation  of  Judge  Parker,1  whose  only  serious  competitor  was 
Mr.  William  K.  Hearst,  the  millionaire  proprietor  of  several 
newspapers,  meant  that  Mr.  Bryan  and  the  more  radical  mem- 
bers  of  the  party  had  retired  into  the  background  in  order  to 
give  the  more  conservative  Democrats  of  the  East  and  South  a 
chance  to  show  what  they  could  do  toward  reorganizing  the 
party  and  leading  it  to  victory.  The  latter  made  it  clear  that 
they  accepted  the  gold  standard,  but  in  the  campaign  that  fol 
lowed  they  received  but  lukewarm  support  from  the  more  radical 
elements  of  the  party,  and  Mr.  Roosevelt  was  elected  in  No 
vember  by  the  largest  popular  majority  in  our  history.  In  the 
Electoral  College  he  had  three  hundred  and  thirty-nine  votes, 
including  those  of  West  Virginia  and  Missouri,  against  Judge 
Parker's  one  hundred  and  forty ;  in  other  words,  the  Demo 
crats  had  lost  every  section  save  the  South,  and  had  not  entirely 
maintained  themselves  there.  Fewer  ballots,  however,  had 
been  cast  than  was  the  case  in  1900,  a  proof  of  apathy  on  the 
part  of  many  citizens.  In  fact,  the  campaign  of  1904  was  a 
remarkably  dull  one,  the  only  excitement  occurring  toward  the 
close  when  charges  were  made  regarding  the  raising  of  cam 
paign  funds.  Immediately  after  his  election,  Mr.  Koosevelt 
announced  that  he  would  not  accept  a  renomination  for  Presi 
dent.  As  might  have  been  expected  from  the  general  satisfac 
tion  of  the  country  with  Mr.  Eoosevelt's  administration,  both 
houses  of  Congress  remained  strongly  Republican. 

692.  Events  of  1905:  The  Treaty  of  Portsmouth.  —  Early  in 
the  year  the  administration  endeavored  to  effect  a  treaty  with 
the  disorganized  republic  of  San  Domingo  by  which  the  United 
States  should  take  charge  of  the  Dominican  custom-houses  and 
apply  a  considerable  portion  of  the  revenues  thereof  to  the  pay 
ment  of  the  debts  of  the  small  republic.  Much  opposition  was 

1  Born  in  Cortlandt,  N.  Y.,  May  14,  1852 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  took 
interest  in  state  politics;  filled  judicial  positions  from  1885  to  1904;  chief- 
justice  of  court  of  appeals  (1898-1904) ;  resigned  after  accepting  the  nomina 
tion  for  the  presidency,  and  has  since  practiced  law  in  New  York  City. 


§  692]  ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  541 

manifested  in  the  Senate,  and  the  calling  of  an  extra  session 
of  that  body  did  not  secure  the  passage  of  the  treaty.1  About 
the  same  time  there  was  friction  with  Venezuela,  owing  to  the 
sequestration  of  the  lands  of  the  American  Asphalt  Company. 
In  Congress,  the  main  subject  of  discussion  was  the  regulation 
of  railroad  rates,  but  nothing  was  accomplished  in  the  matter. 
In  the  sphere  of  State  legislation  and  administration,  interest 
was  chiefly  centered  in  the  investigation  into  the  affairs  of  some 
of  the  larger  life  insurance  companies  and  in  the  attacks  made 
upon  monopolies.  In  the  course  of  the  inquiries  conducted  by 
the  New  York  investigating  commission  it  was  shown,  not  only 
that  there  was  gross  waste  in  the  management  of  the  business 
of  the  chief  insurance  companies,  but  that  they  spent  money  to 
influence  legislation,  and  made  large  contributions  to  the  na 
tional  parties  for  campaign  purposes.1  In  the  war  against  the 
trusts,  the  special  objects  of  attack  were  the  Standard  Oil  Com 
pany  and  the  so-called  Beef  Trust.  In  municipal  politics  the 
most  interesting  situation  was  created  by  the  fight  between 
Mayor  Weaver  of  Philadelphia  and  the  ring  of  Kepublican  poli 
ticians  in  that  city  over  what  was  generally  regarded  as  a  cor 
rupt  lease  of  the  city  gas  plant.  The  lease  was  defeated,  and 
some  rather  spasmodic  victories  were  won  for  the  cause  of  re 
form.  In  New  York  City  Mayor  McClellan  was  reflected  by 
a  small  plurality  over  W.  R.  Hearst,  the  Municipal  Ownership 
candidate,  who  claimed  that  extensive  frauds  by  Tammany  de 
prived  him  of  victory.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  most  strik 
ing  event  of  the  year  was  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace 
between  Russia  and  Japan,  which  took  place  on  September  5, 
at  the  Navy  Yard  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  President 
Roosevelt,  believing  that  the  time  had  come  for  the  bloody  war 
between  the  two  powers  to  cease,  and  feeling  assured  of  the 
support  of  other  governments,  sent  notes  to  the  respective 
heads  of  the  two  warring  powers,  urging  that  they  should  open 


l  The  President  finally  gained  his  point  in  July,  1907,  when  the  necessary 
treaty  was  ratified. 


542  McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  693 

negotiations  with  each  other.  His  suggestions  bore  fruit  at 
once;  the  envoys  were  introduced  to  one  another  by  the  Presi 
dent,  whose  interest  in  the  success  of  the  negotiations  un 
doubtedly  contributed  to  the  final  accommodation ;  the  treaty 
was  signed  and  ratified;  and  the  world  was  at  peace.  No  other 
event  connected  with  his  administrations  has  reflected  more 
credit  upon  the  President  or  has  given  clearer  proof  of  the 
growth  of  American  prestige  throughout  the  world.1 

693.  Legislation  of  1906.  —  The  first  session  of  the  Fifty-ninth 
Congress  was  marked  by  great  opposition  to  the  President  and 
his  policies  from  members  of  his  own  party.     This  opposition 
was  specially  bitter  over  the  railroad  rate  act,  which  finally, 
however,  became  a  law.      Questions  of  personal  veracity  were 
raised,  and  Congress  failed  to  pass  such  excellent  bills  as  that 
designed   to  relieve  the  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  from 
heavy  tariff  duties  on  articles  imported  into  the  United  States. 
But  the  President  retained  the  confidence  of  the  people,  and 
secured  some  important  legislation  —  in  particular,  the  meat 
inspection  law,  which  was  passed  in  consequence  of  disclosures 
made  in  a  popular  novel  concerning  the  bad  conditions  prevail 
ing  in  the  Chicago   meat-packing  establishments.      A  "Pure 
Food   Law,"   looking   to  the  protection  of  the  consumers  of 
foods,  drugs,  and  liquors,  was  also  passed,  as  well  as  a  bill  pro 
viding  for  the  admission  of  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory  as 
one  state  under  the  former  name,  and  for  the  joint  admission 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  on  the  condition  that  each  terri 
tory  should  vote  separately  in  favor  of  such  joint  admission.2 
Other  meritorious  legislation  was  also  enacted  —  for  example,  a 
stricter  naturalization  law. 

694.  The   San   Francisco    Earthquake.  —  The    most    terrible 
catastrophe  of  recent  years,  save  the  Sicilian  and  Calabrian 
earthquake   of  1908,  took   place   on  April  18,  1906,   when  a 

1  Representatives  of  the  United  States  sat,  without  voting,  in  the  inter 
national  conference  on  Moroccan  affairs  held  in  January,  1906,  at  Algeciras, 
Spain.  2  Arizona  rejected  joint-statehood. 


§  695]  ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  543 

destructive  earthquake  occurred  in  California,  which  inflicted 
great  damage  to  property  and  cost  hundreds  of  lives.  The 
chief  loss  fell  upon  San  Francisco,  where  the  earthquake  was 
followed  by  a  fire  which  could  not  be  put  out  for  several  days. 
About  200,000  persons  were  left  homeless.  The  magnitude  of 
the  disaster  deeply  impressed  the  rest  of  the  country  and  the 
world,  with  the  result  that  assistance  was  conveyed  to  the 
stricken  region  with  great  promptness  and  on  a  large  scale. 
This  sympathy  was  succeeded  by  widespread  admiration  for 
the  courage  and  energy  with  which  the  citizens  of  San 
Francisco  at  once  set  to  work  to  construct  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  old  a  new  city  which  in  solidity  and  beauty  should  meas 
urably  realize  their  ideals.  Unfortunately,  their  efforts  were 
soon  impeded  by  labor  troubles,  and  the  city  was  disgraced  by 
grave  municipal  scandals. 

695.  Intervention  in  Cuba.  —  In  August,  1906,  a  revolution 
broke  out  in  Cuba  against  the  Palma  government,  and  in  Sep 
tember  President  Palma  requested  the  United  States  to 
intervene.  Sincerely  wishing  the  little  republic  to  preserve 
its  autonomy,  President  Roosevelt  hesitated  to  send  forces,  but 
after  an  investigation  conducted  by  Secretary  Taft  and  acting 
Secretary  of  State  Bacon,  and  after  the  resignation  of  the  Cuban 
President  and  Vice  President,  it  became  clear  that  there  was 
such  friction  between  the  political  factions  of  the  island  that 
peace  could  be  secured  only  through  the  exercise  of  force 
by  the  United  States.  Late  in  September,  Secretary  Taft 
issued  a  proclamation  which  placed  Cuba  temporarily  under 
American  control,  and  an  adequate  force  was  land  ed.  The  action 
was  favorably  received  by  Cubans  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  and 
the  island  has  since  remained  quiet  under  the  provisional  gov 
ernorship  of  Charles  E.  Magoon.  Many  of  the  richer  planters, 
and  not  a  few  citizens  of  this  country,  favor  the  annexation  of 
Cuba  to  the  United  States;  but  the  movement  in  this  direction 
can  scarcely  as  yet  be  said  to  be  strong,  and  it  is  clear  that 
hitherto  the  policy  of  the  greater  toward  the  weaker  republic 


544  McKINLEY  AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  696 

has  been  generous  and  unselfish,  save  in  the  matter  of  tariff 
reductions.     (See  §§  687,  689.) 

696.  Race  Troubles:   Atlanta  and  Brownsville  Riots.  —  Dur 
ing  recent  years,  friction  between  whites  and  blacks  seems  to 
have  been  growing  more  intense,  not  only  in  the  South,  but  in 
the  North  and  West,  and  lynchings  and  riots  have  been  dis 
gracefully  frequent,  the  latest  instance  of  lawlessness  on  a  large 
scale  having  occurred  at  Springfield,  Illinois,  in  August,  1908. 
There  has  also  been  much  race  friction  between  Americans  and 
Japanese  on  the  Pacific  Coast.     In  Georgia  and  in  Texas,  two 
particularly  regrettable  outbursts  occurred  in  1906.     In  Sep 
tember,  the  usual  occasion  of  such  riots,  combined  with  the 
bad  effects  of  a  violent  political  campaign,  lashed  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Atlanta  into  a  fury,  which  spent  itself  on  the 
negroes  wherever  they  could  be  found,  regardless  of  their  inno 
cence  or  criminality.      Several  persons  were  killed,  and  the 
militia  had  to  be  called  out.     Later,  the  better  elements  of  the 
city,  white  and  black,  endeavored  to  develop  kinder  feelings 
between  the  races  and  greater  respect  for  the  law.     The  month 
before  there  had  been  a  shooting  affray  at  Brownsville,  Texas, 
between  negro  soldiers  stationed   at  the   fort  there  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town.     In  answer  to  protests  made  to  him, 
and  on  the  failure  of  all  his  efforts  to  discover  the   guilty 
soldiers,  President  Eoosevelt,  in  November,  ordered  that  the 
entire  body  of  negro  troops  involved  in  suspicion  should  be 
dismissed  from  the  service  in  disgrace.     This  action  was  both 
applauded   and   condemned.     It   led  to  inconclusive   investi 
gations  and  to  much  discontent  among  the  negroes  and  their 
friends. 

697.  Elections  of  1906.  —  The  election  in  November  resulted 
in  a  victory  for  the  Republicans,  but  their  majority  in  Congress 
was  materially  reduced.    Several  State  elections  attracted  atten 
tion,  but  public  interest  was  mainly  centered  upon  the  contest 
for  the  governorship  of  New  York  between  the  Republican 
candidate,  Mr.  Charles  E.  Hughes,  who  had  won  a  national 


§  698]  ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION  545 

reputation  by  his  skillful  conduct  of  the  investigation  of  the 
great  insurance  companies  (see  §  692),  and  the  Democratic 
candidate,  Mr.  W.  R.  Hearst,  who  had  been  a  competitor  of 
Judge  Parker's  for  the  Presidential  nomination  (see  §  691), 
and  had  so  nearly  defeated  Mr.  McClellan  for  the  mayoralty 
of  New  York  City  (see  §  692).  Mr.  Hearst  was  also  the 
candidate  of  the  Independence  League,  which  was  generally 
understood  to  be  a  party  mainly  controlled  by  him.  His  se 
curing  the  Democratic  nomination  alienated  many  Democrats, 
and  led  to  his  defeat,  but  that  the  election  was  a  personal 
triumph  for  Mr.  Hughes  was  shown  by  the  election  of  the 
Democratic  State  ticket  to  all  the  offices  except  the  governorship. 
Mr.  Hearst  subsequently  withdrew  from  the  Democratic  party 
and  carried  the  Independence  League  into  national  politics. 

698 .  The  Panic  of  1 907.  —  Although  numerous  matters,  foreign 
and  domestic,1  made  the  twelvemonth  that  followed  the  elec 
tions  of  1906  interesting  to  the  contemporary  observer  of  pub 
lic  affairs,  it  seems  clear  that  to  the  future  student  one  event 
of  the  year  will  overshadow  all  others  —  the  financial  crisis  of 
the  autumn.  It  began  in  October  with  the  failure  of  a  New 
York  trust  company,  and  for  some  weeks  the  stringency  of  the 
money  market  was  acute,  particularly  in  the  business  centers 
of  the  East.  Many  private  fortunes,  especially  of  those  en 
gaged  in  any  form  of  speculation,  were  impaired,  and  industry 
was  greatly  checked,  with  the  result  that  thousands  of  men 
were  thrown  out  of  employment  and  that  immigration  from 
Europe  showed  a  decided  falling  off.  In  some  quarters  there 


1  For  example,  the  friction  with  Japan  caused  by  the  opposition  to  the 
presence  of  Japanese  pupils  in  the  public  schools  of  San  Francisco ;  the  per 
sonal  controversies  of  the  President,  particularly  that  with  the  railway  mag 
nate,  Mr.  E.  H.  Harriman,  with  regard  to  campaign  contributions  raised  by 
the  latter;  the  proceedings  of  the  closing  session  of  the  Fifty-ninth  Congress ; 
the  suits  against  the  Standard  Oil  Company;  the  President's  speeches  on 
commercial  and  financial  topics ;  and  the  persistent  efforts  to  induce  him  to 
accept  a  nomination  for  a  third  term. 


546  McKINLEY   AND   ROOSEVELT,    1897-1909.  [§  699 

was  a  disposition  to  attribute  the  panic  to  the  President's  policy 
of  subjecting  the  methods  of  the  railroads  and  trusts  to  strict 
examination,  and  of  insisting  that  they  should  comply  in  every 
respect  with  the  statutes  which  had  been  enacted  to  control  their 
activities ;  but  more  impartial  students  regarded  the  catastrophe 
as  the  natural  consequence  of  the  strain  to  which  capital  had 
been  subjected  for  some  years  during  a  period  of  speculation 
and  industrial  inflation.  Credit  had  been  strained  in  America, 
and  abroad,  and  defects  in  the  system  of  currency  had  created 
among  business  men  a  feeling  of  insecurity  and  uncertainty 
which  was  probably  more  accentuated  by  the  talk  than  by  the 
actions  of  the  Executive.  His  speeches,  perhaps,  had  something 
to  do  with  occasioning  the  crisis,  but  it  was  an  inevitable  event 
and,  on  the  whole,  a  salutary  one.  It  taught  the  public  that  no 
country,  however  rich  and  energetic,  can  defy  with  impunity 
the  principles  of  honest  and  conservative  financiering,  that  all 
sections  and  nations  are  so  closely  bound  that  one  cannot  suffer 
without  affecting  the  rest,  and  that  the  part  an  administration 
can  take,  whether  in  precipitating  or  in  alleviating  such  a  crisis, 
is  unimportant  in  comparison  with  the  actions  of  financiers, 
investors,  and  business  men  in  the  aggregate. 

699.  Events  and  Legislation  of  1908.  —  One  of  the  most 
spectacular  events  of  the  year  was  the  cruise  of  the  Atlantic 
fleet  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  voyage  was  made  via  Cape 
Horn,  and  the  fleet  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  not 
only  by  the  people  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  but  also  in  New  Zea 
land,  Australia,  and  Japan.  As  a  display  of  naval  power  and 
efficiency,  the  cruise  was  a  success,  and  its  political  effects  seem 
to  have  justified  its  inception,  especially  as  the  welcome  given 
our  sailors  in  Japan  did  much  to  show  that  there  was  no  imme 
diate  cause  for  friction  with  that  country.  Less  spectacular, 
but  not  less  important,  was  the  ratification  of  numerous  arbi 
tration  treaties,  including  one  with  Japan,  and  of  eleven 
Hague  conventions  relating  to  the  conduct  of  war.  A  confer 
ence  of  the  governors  of  the  States  met  at  Washington  in  May, 


§  700]  ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  547 

on  the  call  of  President  Roosevelt,  and  discussed  the  best 
methods  of  conserving  the  natural  resources,  the  forests  and 
waterways  of  the  country.  It  was  generally  regarded  as  a 
forward  ste*},  and  it  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  national 
commission  charged  with  this  important  matter.  There  was  a 
remarkable  wave  of  activity  among  the  advocates  of  legislation 
against  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  leading,  especially  in 
the  South,  to  the  adoption  of  prohibition  and  local  option  laws. 
The  first  session  of  the  Sixtieth  Congress  passed  laws  in  the  in 
terest  of  government  employees  injured  in  the  performance  of 
duty,  and  similar  measures,  and,  finally,  after  much  debate  and 
filibustering,  a  compromise  Currency  Bill,  known  as  the  Vree- 
land-Aldrich  Bill.  One  of  the  provisions  of  this  was  the  es 
tablishment  of  a  commission  of  senators  and  representatives 
to  consider  the  monetary  system  and  the  banking  laws  of  the 
country.  The  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the  House  was 
authorized  to  hold  recess  sittings  and  to  hear  testimony  with 
regard  to  the  need  of  revising  the  tariff.  Late  in  the  year, 
Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  the  famous  millionaire  steel  manufac 
turer,  created  a  sensation  by  declaring  before  the  committee 
his  belief  that  the  industry  in  which  he  was  an  expert  needed 
no  protection  whatsoever. 

700.  The  Election  of  1908.  —  President  Roosevelt  had  an 
nounced,  upon  his  reelection  in  1904,  that  he  would  not  be  a 
candidate  for  a  third  term,  and  toward  the  end  of  his  admin 
istration  he  used  his  influence  to  secure  the  nomination  for  his 
Secretary  of  War,  WTilliam  Howard  Taft,1  of  Ohio.  His  insist 
ence  crushed  all  opposition,  and  Mr.  Taft  was  chosen  on  the 


1  Born  iu  Ohio,  1857.  Practiced  law  in  Ohio  after  graduating  at  Yale  in  1878, 
and  became  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Ohio.  After  service  as  Solicitor- 
general  and  Circuit  Judge  for  the  United  States,  was  made  President  of  the 
Philippine  Commission  in  1900  and  then  Civil  Governor  of  the  Islands.  En 
tered  President  Roosevelt's  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  War  in  1904,  and  aided  in 
reestablishing  the  Cuban  Republic,  and  in  organizing  the  construction  of 
the  Panama  Canal.  Elected  President  1908. 


548 


McKINLEY  AND  ROOSEVELT,   1897-1909. 


[§700 


first  ballot  by  the  convention,  which  met  in  Chicago,  in  June, 
1908.  James  S.  Sherman,  long  a  Representative  from  New 
York,  was  nominated  as  Vice  President.  The  platform  pledged 
the  party  to  a  revision  of  the  tariff.  It  upheld  the  right  of 
the  courts  to  issue  injunctions1  in  labor  disputes,  in  terms 

that  offended  some 
union  labor  leaders. 
These  turned  to  the 
support  of  William 
Jennings  Bryan  and 
John  W.  Kern,  the 
candidates  named 
by  the  Democratic 
party  at  Denver. 
Their  platform  de 
manded  tariff  revi 
sion,  railroad  con 
trol,  trust  regula 
tion,  and  guarantee 
of  bank  deposits.  In 
the  canvass,  leading 
Democrats  tried  to 
expose  improper  re 
lations  between 
some  Republican 
congressmen  and 
the  great  corpora 
tions,  but  they  were  unable  to  overcome  the  advantage  of 
Mr.  Taft's  excellent  record  and  his  unqualified  indorsement 
by  President  Roosevelt.  Mr.  Bryan  was  defeated  for  the  third 
time,  receiving  a  very  large  popular  vote,  but  only  162  electoral 
votes,  while  Mr.  Taft  received  321. 


WILLIAM    H.   TAFT. 


1  Injunctions,  which  are  judicial  orders  commanding  or  forbidding  specified 
acts,  were  often  directed  against  strikers  to  prevent  them  from  interfering 
with  the  business  of  their  employers. 


Longitude 


To  follow  p.  548. 


UNITED  STATES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


CHAPTER   XXXIX. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF   TAFT,  AND   THE  PROGRES 
SIVE  MOVEMENT,    1909-1913. 

701.  The  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff,  1909.  —  Throughout  the  cam 
paign  of  1908,  Mr.  Taft  had  interpreted  the  Republican  plat 
form  as  promising  a  downward  revision  of  the  rates  of  the 
Dingley  Tariff.  Since  1902,  when  Western  Republicans  ad 
vanced  the  "Iowa  Idea"  for  a  lower  tariff,  there  had  been  a 
growing  demand  for  this  within  the  party.  It  was  generally 
believed  that  many  of  the  existing  rates  were  unreasonably  high, 
and  that,  by  preventing  foreign  competition,  they  encouraged 
trusts  and  monopolies  in  America.  Few  citizens,  of  any  party, 
wanted  free  trade  ;  but  so  many  wanted  lower  duties  that  there 
was  wide  approval  when  President  Taft  summoned  Congress  in 
special  session  to  revise  the  tariff. 

The  resulting  Payne-Aldrich  Tariff  (so  called  from  Repre 
sentative  Sereno  E.  Payne  and  Senator  Nelson  W.  Aldrich,  who 
led  the  debates  upon  it),  revealed  the  difficulties  of  any  tariff 
revision.  While  most  congressmen  believed  that  the  rates 
ought  to  be  lowered,  each  made  exceptions  in  the  case  of  arti 
cles  manufactured  in  his  own  district.  As  the  bill  progressed, 
they  combined  to  save  their  own  industries,  with  the  result 
that  the  final  bill  was  as  unsatisfactory  a  "  reduction "  as  the 
Wilson  Bill  (1894),  which  Cleveland  had  refused  to  sign.  It 
hardly  differed  from  the  McKinley  and  Dingley  bills,  which 
made  no  pretense  at  reduction.  President  Taft  signed  the  bill, 
however,  and  later  at  Winona,  Minnesota,  defended  it  as  a  com 
promise,  and  declared  it  better  than  its  predecessors.  At  once 
a  storm  of  hostile  criticism  broke  upon  him  and  the  party  lead 
ers  with  whom  he  had  acted,  Senator  Aldrich  and  Speaker 
Joseph  G.  Cannon. 

549 


550  TAFT'S   ADMINISTRATION,    1909-1013.  [§  702 

702.  The  Insurgent  Republicans.  —  Opposition  to  the  Payne- 
Aldrich  tariff  had  been  led  by  Senator  Robert  M.  La  Follette,1 
of  Wisconsin,  and  other  progressive  Republicans  in  both  houses 
of   Congress.     They  opposed   the  bill   in   debate,  and  voted 
against  it,  calling  it  a  breach  of  faith.     They  broke  with  the 
administration  in  1909,  and  in  1910  the  progressive  Represent 
atives  voted  with  the  Democrats  in  the  House  to  rebuke  Mr. 
Cannon  by  reducing  the  powers  of  the  Speaker.     During  1911 
and  1912  the  Democrats,  with  the  help  of  progressive  Republi 
cans,  passed  numerous  bills  reducing  parts  of  the  tariff.     Presi 
dent  Taft  vetoed  these,  and  insisted  that  the  rates  ought  to  be 
reduced  only  on  recommendation  of  a  scientific  tariff  commis 
sion.      The   "  insurgents,"  as  the  Western  Republicans  were 
called,  denounced  the  President  as  a  friend  of  corrupt  politics 
and  the  trusts.     Early  in  1911  they  organized  a  National  Pro 
gressive  Republican  League  which  hoped  to  get  control  of  the 
Republican  organization  in  time  to  prevent  the  renomination 
of  Mr.  Taft  in  1912. 

703.  The   Progressive   Movement.  —  The    Insurgent   Repub 
licans   made  a  strong   appeal  to  citizens   who   believed   that 
"big  business"  had  too  much  influence  in  politics.     During 
the  Roosevelt  administrations  a  wave  of  exposure  had  swept 
the  country,  revealing  the  corrupt   methods  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company,  and  other  great  corporations,  and  charging  many 
crimes  that  could  not  be  proved   but  were   readily   believed. 
This  was  called  "  muck-raking."     The  growth  and  extension 
of  great  corporations,  or  trusts,  alarmed  the  public  and  gave, 
rise  to  a  demand  for  regulation  of  railroads  and  trusts.     Re- 


iBorn  in  Wisconsin,  1855.  Practiced  law  after  graduation  from  the  Uni 
versity  of  Wisconsin,  and  served  in  Congress,  1885-1891.  Became  a  leader 
against  the  machine  in  movements  to  regulate  railway  rates  by  law,  and  to 
nominate  all  candidates  by  direct  primai'ies.  Led  in  the  adoption  of  these  re 
forms  in  Wisconsin  —  "  the  Wisconsin  Idea"  —  while  Governor,  1901-190f>. 
Became  United  States  Senator  in  1905,  and  thereafter  led  in  progressive  re 
form  movements  in  the  Senate,  —  the  first  insurgent. 


§  704]  TAFT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  551 

ductioii  of  the  tariff  became  more  and  more  prominent  as  an 
issue.  The  progressives  also  hoped  to  make  the  government 
more  responsive  to  popular  will  through  the  initiative  and 
referendum,  the  recall,  direct  primaries,  and  woman  suffrage.1 
Few  of  the  older  party  leaders  helped  in  this  new  movement ; 
many  of  them  opposed  it  and  declared  their  desire  to  "  stand 
pat."  The  progressives  called  the  conservatives  stand-patters, 
and  believed  that  they  wanted  unfair  privileges  for  favored 
classes.  A  quarrel  that  broke  out  in  the  Interior  Department 
in  1909,  between  Secretary  Ballinger  and  the  chief  of  the  for 
estry  service,  Gifford  Pinchot,  widened  still  farther  the  breach 
in  the  Republican  party.  The  friends  of  Mr.  Pinchot  main 
tained  that  he  was  trying  to  conserve  the  natural  resources  of 
the  United  States,  while  Mr.  Ballinger  and  President  Taft 
were  working  against  public  interest.  When  President  Taft 
dismissed  Mr.  Pinchot,  the  party  split  became  hopeless,  the 
more  so  because  the  latter  was  an  intimate  friend  and  confidant 
of  ex-President  Roosevelt.  Some  of  the  progressives  hoped 
that  Mr.  Roosevelt,  who  was  now  returning  to  the  United 
States  after  a  year  abroad,  would  take  sides  against  the  Presi 
dent,  and  seek  the  nomination  for  himself  in  1912. 

704.  The  Taft  Policies. — President  Taft  had  been  elected 
as  Mr.  Roosevelt's  choice,  in  the  confidence  that  he  would 
continue  the  vigorous  policies  of  his  predecessor.  In  his  first 
year  he  lost  the  support  of  some  Republicans  over  the  tariff, 
and  of  others  over  conservation.  He  lacked  the  aggressive 
popularity  of  Mr.  Roosevelt,  and  regarded  government  from 
the  viewpoint  of  an  able  judge.  He  devoted  himself  to  three 
great  objects:  reciprocity  with  Canada,  international  arbitra- 

!By  the  initiative  is  meant  the  power  of  any  group  of  citizens,  by  petition, 
to  introduce  a  law  or  an  amendment ;  the  referendum  is  the  popular  vote  by 
which  such  law  or  amendment  is  accepted  or  rejected ;  the  recall  is  a  process 
for  removing  unpopular  or  unfaithful  officials  from  office  by  a  referendum 
vote;  direct  primaries  are  special  elections  within  each  party,  held  under 
public  control,  for  the  purpose  of  nominating  officers. 


552  TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION,   1909-1913.  [§705 

tion,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  Sherman  anti-trust  law  of 
1890.  His  measure  for  Canadian  reciprocity  was  passed  by 
Congress  at  a  special  session  summoned  in  1911.  It  provided 
for  an  exchange  with  Canada  of  certain  goods,  duty-free,  and 
was  intended  to  reduce  the  cost  of  living,  about  which  there 
was  much  complaint.  Although  the  insurgents  opposed  it  be 
cause  the  reductions  were  at  the  expense  of  the  farmer,  not 
the  manufacturer,  ex-President  Roosevelt  favored  it,  and  the 
bill  became  a  law.  It  was,  however,  rejected  by  Canada,  after 
a  stirring  campaign,  in  which  the  opponents  of  reciprocity  in 
sisted  that  the  United  States  sought  to  annex  Canada.  Its  de 
feat  was  a  severe  rebuff  to  President  Taft. 

705.  Arbitration  and  the  Trusts.  —  President  Taft  believed 
not  only  in  peace  but  also  in  arbitration,  and  thought  there 
were  no  quarrels  between  nations  that  ought  not  to  be  sub 
mitted  to  a  court  of  justice.  At  both  Hague  conferences,  in 
1899  and  1907,  the  United  States  had  urged  this  theory.  In 
the  summer  of  1911  treaties  of  compulsory  arbitration  were 
signed  with  France  and  Great  Britain.1  Their  ratification  was 
opposed  by  many  insurgents,  on  factional  grounds,  and  by 
others  who  feared  they  endangered  the  interests  of  the  United 
States.  The  fact  that  Mr.  Roosevelt  opposed  them  in  the 
pages  of  the  weekly  magazine  with  which  he  had  associated 
himself,  seemed  to  show  that  he  was  taking  the  side  of  the 
insurgents  against  the  President,  for  he  had  always  been 
regarded  as  a  friend  of  peace.  The  Senate  declined  to  ratify 
the  treaties,  and  rebuffed  the  President  again. 

President  Taft  achieved  his  greatest  success  in  his  suits 


1  James  Bryce,  who  signed  the  treaty  on  behalf  of  Great  Britain,  was 
ambassador  to  the  United  States  1907-1912.  As  a  professor  at  Oxford  he  had 
studied  American  life  since  1870.  His  book,  The  American  Commonwealth, 
appeared  in  1888,  and  at  once  was  recognized  as  the  best  general  book  ever 
written  about  the  United  States.  He  was  justly  popular  throughout  his 
period  as  ambassador,  and  did  much  to  strengthen  the  friendly  relations  be 
tween  the  two  countries. 


§706]  TAFT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  553 

against  the  corporations  that  were  conspiring  in  restraint  of 
trade.  Never  had  the  Sherman  Law  been  enforced  so  diligently. 
The  Standard  Oil  and  Tobacco  trusts  were  dissolved  by  order 
of  the  courts,  as  was  the  great  Harriman  merger  of  the  Union 
Pacific  and  Southern  Pacific  railroads.  These  corporations, 
however,  continued  to  grow  in  wealth  as  rapidly  after  dissolu 
tion  as  before.  The  insurgents,  growing  more  bitter  all  the 
time,  and  feeling  a  rising  demand  among  the  people  for  democ 
racy  and  impartial  government,  now  declared  that  this  was  the 
wrong  way  to  deal  with  the  trusts ;  and  in  this  view  Mr.  Roose 
velt  concurred. 

706.  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  the  "  New  Nationalism."  —  The 
importance  of  Mr.  Roosevelt's  views  steadily  increased  during 
President  Taft's  administration.  The  latter  was  unable  to 
convince  the  people  or  even  his  own  party  that  he  was  genuinely 
progressive ;  and  since  Mr.  Roosevelt  had  declared  that  he 
would  not  accept  a  third  term,  the  hope  grew  that  he  would 
support  one  of  the  insurgents  against  Mr.  Taft  in  1912.  His 
reentry  into  politics  had  occurred  in  the  fall  of  1910,  after  his 
return  from  his  travels  in  Africa  and  Europe. 

His  first  great  speech  was  made  at  Ossawatomie,  Kansas, 
where  in  August,  1910,  he  advanced  his  theory  of  the  "  New 
Nationalism."  The  theory  was  founded  upon  the  obvious  fact 
that  American  business,  because  of  the  enormous  growth  of 
railroads  and  other  systems  of  communication,  had  become 
truly  national ;  and  that  the  powers  of  the  American  government 
must  be  used  to  regulate  this  business,  and  increased  where 
they  should  prove  to  be  inadequate.  This,  a  central  idea  of  the 
insurgents,  was  familiar  to  the  West,  where  liberal  ideas  were 
common.  In  the  East,  however,  it  was  regarded  as  socialistic 
and  revolutionary,  and  brought  to  the  attention  of  many  con 
servatives,  for  the  first  time,  the  extent  of  the  Western  demand 
for  strong,  direct,  popular  government.  Among  the  progressive 
leaders,  it  aroused  jealous  fears  that  Mr.  Roosevelt  might  him 
self  seek  the  nomination  in  1912.  On  the  other  hand  it  in- 


554  TAFT'S   ADMINISTRATION,    1909-1913.  [§  707 

spired  the  conservative  Republicans  to  rally  around  Mr.  Taft 
as  the  safeguard  of  orderly  government. 

707.  The   Political  Situation,  1910-1912. — The  Republican 
party  seemed  to  be  breaking  up  in  Taft's  administration.     Its 
internal  split  weakened  it  in  every  state  and  enabled  the  Dem 
ocrats,  in  1910,  to  gain  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives.     During  the  next  two  years  Congress  devoted  itself  to 
party  tactics.     The  Democrats  prepared  material  for  the  ap 
proaching  presidential  campaign  ;  the  insurgents  sought  to  dis 
credit  the  administration  still  further  and  preferred  a  Dem 
ocratic  victory  to  the  reelection  of  Taft ;  the  stand-patters,  or 
old  line  Republicans,  held  control  of  the  Senate  in  many  cases ; 
at  other  times  the  insurgent  senators  held  the  balance  of  power 
and  voted  with  the  democrats  on  reform,  measures.     The  tide 
was   plainly   flowing   against   the   reactionaries,   and    several 
announced  their  intention  not  to  run  for  reelection. 

Throughout  the  country  there  was  general  uneasiness.  The 
conviction  of  two  prominent  labor  leaders,  named  McNamara, 
in  Los  Angeles  as  murderers  and  dynamiters,  brought  reproach 
upon  all  organized  labor.  The  adoption  of  woman  suffrage,  in 
California  and  Washington,  in  1910,  and  in  Arizona,  Kansas, 
and  Oregon,  in  1912,  widened  the  basis  of  democratic  govern 
ment.  The  admission  of  Oklahoma  in  1907,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  in  1912,  provoked  a  wide  discussion  of  theories  of  gov 
ernment,  including  that  of  the  recall  of  judges.  Everywhere 
there  was  evidence  of  reorganization  in  society,  and  of  a  pro- 
gressivism  in  politics  that  left  old  leaders  behind  and  even 
turned  on  them  as  obstacles  to  progress. 

708.  The  Renomination  of  President  Taft.  —  As  the  conven 
tion  of  1912  approached,  the  progressive  Republicans  seemed 
most  likely  to  agree  upon  Senator  La  Follette  as  their  candi 
date,  although  some  feared  that  he  was  not  popular  enough  to 
win  even  if  nominated.     The  growing  strength  of  the  Demo 
cratic  party  made  1912  seem  like  a  Democratic  year. 


§  709]  THE   POLITICAL   SITUATION,    1910-1912.  555 

The  unity  of  the  progressives  was  broken  when  Mr.  Roose 
velt,  at  the  request  of  a  group  of  Western  governors,  announced 
his  willingness  to  run  again,  and  explained  that  his  refusal  in 
1904  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  third  term,  had  meant  only  a  third 
consecutive  term.  Around  his  candidacy  most  of  the  progres 
sives  flocked,  believing  that  his  personality  and  his  identifica 
tion  with  reform  would  give  him  a  good  chance  of  election. 
A  small  group  remained  loyal  to  Senator  La  Follette,  denounced 
Mr.  Roosevelt's  ambition  for  a  third  term,  and  declared  that 
the  ex-President  was  at  heart  a  stand-patter  who  talked  the 
language  of  reform  only  for  effect.  The  conservative  Republi 
cans,  who  dominated  the  National  Committee,  tried  to  control 
the  delegates  to  the  Chicago  convention. 

There  has  been  no  more  bitter  fight  for  the  nomination  than 
that  of  1912.  For  four  months,  Mr.  Roosevelt  toured  the 
United  States,  denouncing  most  of  his  old  associates,  including 
President  Taft,  who  was  his  own  choice.  He  succeeded  in 
winning  more  than  four  hundred  of  the  Republican  delegates, 
while  his  friends,  for  "  moral  effect,"  advanced  contests  for 
half  as  many  more,  claiming  that  they  rightfully  belonged  to 
him.  From  the  states  in  which  the  old  organization  remained 
in  control,  Mr.  Taft  won  about  as  many  delegates  as  Mr.  Roose 
velt  won  from  the  other  states.  When  the  convention  met 
there  was  a  majority  for  President  Taft,  though  it  was  claimed 
that  this  majority  did  not  represent  the  wish  of  the  bulk  of 
Republican  voters.  In  spite  of  Mr.  Roosevelt's  spectacular 
•visit  to  Chicago,  and  his  charge  that  he  was  defeated  by  "  naked 
theft,"  the  convention  renominated  both  President  Taft  and 
Vice  President  Sherman.1  The  fight  revealed  the  need  for 
direct  nominations  in  place  of  the  old  convention  system,  by 
which  a  minority  of  bosses  could  control  the  party. 

709.  The  National  Progressive  Party.  —  The  Roosevelt  dele 
gates  to  the  Republican  convention  organized  a  new  national 

1  Vice  President  Sherman  died  before  election. 


556  TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION,    1909-1913.  [§710 

party  before  they  left  Chicago,  and  many  of  them  came  back 
in  August  as  delegates  to  the  Progressive  National  Convention. 
This  time  they  nominated  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  Governor 
Hiram  W.  Johnson,  of  California,  and  declared  that  both  old 
parties  were  hopelessly  corrupt.  Their  platform  urged  most 
of  the  social  reforms  towards  which  serious  thinkers  had  long 
been  working,  but  some  of  the  progressive  Republicans  dis 
trusted  Mr.  Roosevelt's  sincerity  and  declined  to  support  him. 
They  maintained  that,  but  for  Mr.  Roosevelt's  ambition,  the 
progressive  movement  would  have  captured  both  the  Repub 
lican  party  and  the  Presidency. 

710.  The  Democratic  Party. —While  the  Republican  factions 
were  wrangling,  the  Democrats  had  met  at  Baltimore.  William 
J.  Bryan,  though  not  himself  a  candidate,  seemed  to  hold  the 
balance  of  power.  After  many  ballots,  in  some  of  which 
Speaker  Clark  received  a  majority,  Woodrow  Wilson,1  Gov 
ernor  of  New  Jersey,  received  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote 
and  the  nomination.  Thomas  R.  Marshall,  Governor  of  Indi 
ana,  was  nominated  for  vice  president. 

The  campaign  soon  developed  into  a  race  between  Mr.  Wil 
son  and  Mr.  Roosevelt.  The  issues  most  discussed  were  the 
tariff  and  the  trusts,  but  the  deciding  factor  in  the  result  was 
the  popular  estimate  of  the  personal  character  of  Woodrow 
Wilson  and  Theodore  Roosevelt.  Wilson  and  Marshall  were 
elected  in  November,  receiving  435  electoral  votes.  Mr.  Roose 
velt  received  88  votes,  and  Mr.  Taft,  carrying  only  two  small 
states,  received  but  eight.  In  spite  of  the  decisive  election,  the 
Democrats  had  less  than  half  of  the  popular  vote,  and  owed 
much  of  their  success  to  the  split  in  the  Republican  party. 
Yet  they  carried  Congress  as  well  as  the  Presidency,  having  a 

iBorn  in  Virginia,  1856.  Educated  at  Princeton  and  the  University  of  Vir 
ginia,  and  became  professor  of  history  and  politics  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Wesleyan, 
and  Princeton.  Was  elected  president  of  Princeton  in  1902.  He  made  a 
splendid  record  as  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  1911-1913,  steadily  fighting  the 
machine  and  leading  the  reform  movements  in  that  state, 


§  712]  DEMOCRATIC   LEGISLATION.  557 

large  majority  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  a  fair 
margin  in  the  Senate.  Only  once  before,  since  the  Civil  War, 
had  there  been  a  Democratic  control  in  all  the  branches  of  the 
national  government. 


CHAPTER   XL. 


THE   ADMINISTRATIONS   OF   WILSON,   1913-1921. 

711.  Woodrow  Wilson.  —  The  new  President  called  an  extra 
session  of  Congress  almost  immediately  after  inauguration.    He 
appeared     in     person 

before  the  Congress, 
thus  reviving  an  old 
custom  which  had  been 
in  disuse  for  over  a 
century,  and  vigor 
ously  urged  certain  leg 
islation.  After  eight 
een  months  of  almost 
continuous  session, 
this  Congress  ad 
journed,  havingpassed, 
among  others,  the  fol- 
lowing  important 
measures :  the  Under 
wood  Tariff  (1913),  a 
slight  revision  down 
ward,  but  marked  by 
measures  stimulating 
foreign  trade ;  the  Fed 
eral  Reserve  Act 
(1913),  establishing 
Reserve  banks  in 
convenient  centers  throughout  the  country,  thus  preventing 
accumulation  of  money  in  New  York  and  diminishing  the  dan 
ger  of  financial  panics  ;  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  and  the 
Anti-trust  bills  (1914). 

712.  Japanese  and  Panama  Questions.  —  Perhaps  no  president 
ever  faced  more  difficult  foreign  problems.     The  first  to  arise 

558 


WOODROW  WILSON. 


§  714]  THE   MEXICAN   QUESTION.  559 

was  over  the  California  legislation,  denying  to  the  Japanese 
.and  Chinese  the  right  to  acquire  agricultural  land.  Through 
the  efforts  of  the  President  and  the  secretary  of  state,  the 
treaty  rights  of  Japan  were  safeguarded. 

Next  came  a  dispute  with  England  over  the  Panama  tolls. 
The  President  recognized  the  justice  of  England's  claim  that 
equal  rights  to  all  ships  did  not  allow  us  to  exempt  even  our 
own,  and  he  persuaded  Congress  to  repeal  the  law  giving  our 
coasting  vessels  special  exemption,  thus  keeping  our  word  and 
giving  equal  rights  to  all  ships  passing  through  the  canal. 

713.  The  Mexican  Question.  —  In  1911,  Porfirio  Diaz,  presi 
dent  of  Mexico  since  1884,  was  forced  to  flee,  and  Madero,  the 
leader  of  the  revolt,  became  president  and  was  recognized  by 
the  United  States.     Madero  in  turn  was  deposed  and  mur 
dered  by  adherents  of  Huerta,  who  then  became  dictator.     The 
American  ambassador  to  Mexico  urged  President  Taft  to  rec 
ognize  Huerta,  but  before  any  action  was  taken  Mr.  Taft's 
term  expired,  and  the  problem  was  left  to  Mr.  Wilson. 

The  case  was  a  difficult  one.  Our  ambassador  was  a  partisan 
of  Huerta,  his  information  was  thought  to  be  biased,  and  he 
was  recalled,  thus  depriving  the  President  of  an  advisor.  The 
President  refused  to  recognize  Huerta,  and  began  a  policy  of 
"  watchful  waiting." 

714.  The  Vera  Cruz  Affair.  —  The  Mexican  authorities   in 
Vera   Cruz   arrested   arbitrarily  some  United  States  marines 
who  had  gone  ashore,  and  the  President  received  authority 
from  Congress  (April  20, 1914)  to  demand  redress  from  Mexico. 
A  sharp  fight  occurred  with  Huerta's  troops,  in  which  nineteen 
Americans  were  killed  and  seventy  wounded.     Diplomatic  rela 
tions  with  Mexico  were  severed. 

Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Chile,  known  as  the  A.  B.  C.  Alliance, 
offered  to  act  as  peace  makers,  and  a  conference  met  at  Niagara, 
May  20,  1914.  Peace  was  not  made,  but  Huerta  resigned. 
General  Carranza  assumed  control  August  20,  but  was  opposed 


560  WILSON'S   ADMINISTRATIONS,    1913-1921.  [§715 

by  General  Villa,  another  rebel  chief.  Carranza  promised  to 
respect  the  lives  and  property  of  American  citizens,  and  in 
October  President  Wilson  recognized  his  government,  as  he 
controlled  about  three  fourths  of  Mexico.  The  United  States 
forces  were  withdrawn  from  Vera  Cruz  in  November,  1914.1 

Villa,  the  bandit  chief,  now  began  attacking  American  citi 
zens  in  Mexico  and  raiding  the  border.  In  March,  1916,  a 
punitive  expedition  under  G-eneral  Pershing  was  sent  into 
Mexico,  and  most  of  the  regular  army  and  the  state  militiamen 
were  dispatched  to  the  border.  Fortunately,  however,  matters 
did  not  become  as  serious  as  was  feared,  and  instead  of  a  real 
war  the  conflict  settled  down  into  guerilla  warfare. 

715.  The  Great  War.  — At  the  outbreak  of  the  European  war 
in  August,  1914,  President  Wilson  issued  the  usual  proclama 
tion  of  neutrality.  The  first  task  before  America  was  to  bring 
home  the  thousands  of  tourists  who  were  stranded  in  Europe, 
unable  to  obtain  gold  or  transportation.  The  sudden  interrup 
tion  of  trade  caused  a  general  business  depression,  and  the 
country  was  probably  saved  from  a  financial  crisis  by  the 
operation  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  (§  711).  Business 
revived  when  American  firms  began  making  munitions  of  war 
for  the  Entente.  Under  International  Law  the  United  States 
as  a  neutral  was  free  to  sell  arms  and  munitions  to  both  sides. 
This  was,  however,  prevented  by  the  British  fleet,  which  swept 

1  President  Wilson  was  obliged  to  move  slowly  in  this  affair,  not  only  be 
cause  of  the  complications  mentioned,  but  because  of  the  suspicions  of  the 
A.  B.  C.  (§  714).  In  accepting  their  mediation  at  the  Niagara  Conference, 
the  President  avowedly  endeavored  to  place  us  on  a  favorable  footing  with 
Latin  America.  The  fact  must  be  remembered  that  the  United  States  has 
made  rapid  advance  in  possessions  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  it  is  not  sur 
prising  that  the  rest  of  America  has  viewed  us  with  suspicion.  We  acquired 
Puerto  Rico  and  a  protectorate  over  Cuba  in  the  Spanish  War;  the  Canal 
Zone  was  seized  and  a  financial  supervision  over  Santo  Domingo  was  assumed 
by  Theodore  Roosevelt ;  Hayti  and  Nicaragua  were  occupied  during  the  Mexi 
can  crisis ;  the  Danish  West  Indies  were  purchased  in  1917.  Latin  America 
was  beginning  to  believe  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  being  used  to  further 
imperial  aggression. 


§717]  THE   CASE   AGAINST   GERMANY.  561 

the  German  ships  from  the  sea,  and  began  a  policy  of  detention 
and  search  of  neutral  vessels  for  contraband  of  war. 

716.  Submarine  Warfare.  —  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  Germany  began  the  policy  of  sowing  floating  mines  in 
the  path  of  British  ships.     In  retaliation,  the  British  Govern 
ment  declared,  November  3,  1914,  that  the  North  Sea  was  a 
war  area,  and  warned  neutrals  not  to  enter  without  British 
sailing  directions.     Following  this,  Germany  proclaimed,  Feb 
ruary  4,  1915,  a  war  zone  around  the  British  Isles,  including 
the  Channel.     This  was  to  take  effect  February  18,  and  a  warn 
ing  was  added  that  neutral  vessels  could  not  be  protected  from 
the  fate  of  British  vessels  if  they  were  found  in  the  war  zone. 
This  was  soon  to  be  known  as  the  policy  of  "  f  rightfulness." 

The  large  majority  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  from 
the  moment  that  the  Belgian  atrocities  became  known,  sympa 
thized  with  the  Allies,  and  urged  the  President  to  act  against 
Germany.  The  Belgian  Relief  Commission  and  the  Red  Cross 
began  at  once  a  splendid  work  of  aiding  that  wronged  and  suf 
fering  country ;  but  until  the  submarine  policy  of  "  frightful- 
ness  "  was  proclaimed  the  United  States  took  no  official  action. 
Against  this  February  decree,  our  government  warned  Ger 
many  that  she  would  be  held  to  "strict  accountability"  for 
the  loss  of  American  ships  and  lives. 

717.  The  Lusitania.  —  The  submarine  policy  was  nevertheless 
inaugurated,  and  Germany  boasted  that  she  could  starve  Eng 
land  into  submission  in  six  months.    Two  Standard  Oil  tankers 
were  torpedoed,  and  while  our  government  was  deliberating 
what  action  to   take,  the  whole  world  was   appalled   by  the 
deliberate   sinking   of   the   Lusitania,   May   7,   1915,  off   the 
southern  point  of  Ireland.     There  were  1917  souls  on  board, 
1153  of  whom  perished,  including  114  American  men,  women, 
and  children. 

The  German  press  at  once  hailed  this  act  as  a  triumph  of 
the  submarine  policy.  In  America  it  was  denounced  as  an  act 


562  WILSON'S   ADMINISTRATIONS,    1913-1921.  [§  718 

of  barbarism,  and  almost  the  whole  country  hoped  that  the 
German  ambassador  would  at  once  be  requested  to  leave  the 
country.  President  Wilson,  however,  sent  a  dignified  note  to 
the  German  government,  asserting  the  right  of  American  citi 
zens  to  travel  on  the  high  seas,  arid  called  upon  Germany  for 
disavowal  and  reparation  —  as  far  as  reparation  was  possible. 
The  reply  was  very  unsatisfactory,  claiming  that  the  Lusitania 
was  armed,  and  that  the  sinking  was  an  act  of  "  self  defense." 
While  the  Lusitania  correspondence  was  in  progress,  the 
Arabic  was  torpedoed,  August,  1915,  and  two  Americans  were 
lost.  The  German  ambassador  at  once  assured  Secretary  of 
State  Lansing  that  if  American  lives  were  lost  it  was  con 
trary  to  German  intention.  This  seemed  at  that  time  to  indi 
cate  a  change  of  heart  on  the  part  of  Germany,  and  negotia 
tions  were  continued.  Count  von  Bernstorff,  the  German 
ambassador,  gave  us,  on  September  1,  solemn  assurance  that 
henceforth  ocean  liners  would  not  be  sunk  without  warning, 
and  that  every  effort  would  be  made  to  save  the  lives  of  non- 
combatants,  provided  that  they  offered  no  resistance. 

718.  Broken  Faith.  —  This  pledge  was  not  kept.  In  March, 
1916,  the  Sussex,  an  unarmed  passenger  steamer,  was  torpedoed 
without  warning  in  the  English  channel.  Among  the  eighty 
passengers  lost  or  injured  were  several  American  citizens. 
The  German  government  denied  responsibility  for  the  dis 
aster,  but  the  evidence  proved  the  contrary,  and  April  18, 
1916,  an  ultimatum  was  drawn  up  declaring  that  unless  Ger 
many  immediately  abandoned  her  policy  of  submarine  warfare 
against  passenger  and  freight  vessels  the  United  States  would 
sever  diplomatic  relations.  In  reply  the  German  government 
said  that  her  naval  commanders  had  received  definite  orders 
according  to  the  promise  made  us  on  September  1,  1915.  The 
United  States  accepted  this  in  good  faith  as  an  abandonment 
of  the  submarine  policy  announced  in  February,  1915,  and 
there  really  followed  a  period  of  marked  cessation  of  sub 
marine  activities. 


§  720]  AMERICA  ENTERS  THE    WAR.  563 

719.  Reelection   of  Wilson. — The   Democrats   unanimously 
renominated  Wilson  and  Marshall,  and  the  Republicans  after 
some   time    united   on   Charles   E.    Hughes,   Justice    of    the 
Supreme  Court   of  the   United   States.      The  campaign   was 
close  and  exciting.     Mr.  Hughes  said  little  on  questions  of  the 
day.     Mr.  Wilson,  in  order  to  avert  a  general  railway  strike 
and  the  accompanying  hard  times,  succeeded  in  getting  Con 
gress  to  pass  the  Adamson  bill,  giving  railway  employees  an 
eight-hour  day  and  extra  pay  for  overtime.    Democratic  papers 
and  orators  also  made  much  of  the  slogan  "he  kept  us  out 
of  war." 

The  morning  after  election  the  defeat  of  Wilson  was  gen 
erally  conceded.  But  the  next  day  when  the  returns  from  the 
country  districts  came  in  the  tide  turned  to  Wilson.  The 
electoral  votes  of  California  decided  the  contest,  although 
Wilson  had  the  votes  of  thirty-one  states.  In  this  campaign 
the  first  woman  representative,  Miss  Jeanette  Rankin,  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  Montana. 

720.  The  United   States  Enters  the  War.  —  On  January  22, 
1917,  President  Wilson  delivered   before  Congress  a  notable 
address  in  which  he  outlined  "  A  League  for  Peace,"  a  basis 
for  the  future  peace  of  the  world.    Soon  after  that  the  German 
government  announced  a  new  war  zone,  and  warned  us  that 
neutral  ships  found  in  the  zone  after  February  1, 1917,  would  be 
sunk.     On  February  3,  the  President  appeared  before  the  Con 
gress  and  announced  that  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany 
had  been  broken,  and  that  at  the  first  overt  act  he  would  ask 
Congress  to  declare  that  war  existed.      Merchants  hesitated 
to  send  out  their  ships  to  certain  loss,  and  our  marine  was 
practically  under   an   embargo.     At  this   crisis  Congress   ad 
journed   (March  4),   having    refused    to   give   the    President 
power  to  act  alone.     Hence   a  special  session  was  at   once 
called.     The  President  again   addressed   Congress,  declaring 
that  "  the  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democracy." 

Late  at  night  on  April  6,  1917,  in  spite  of  the  attempts  of 


564 


WILSON'S   ADMINISTRATIONS,    1913-1921. 


[§721 


meant. 


certain  senators,  Con 
gress  declared  that  a 
state  of  war  existed 
between  the  United 
States  and  Germany.1 

As  soon  as  war  was 
declared  a  number  of 
destroyers  were  sent 
to  Europe  to  cooper 
ate  with  the  British 
fleet,  and  in  June 
came  news  that  the 
first  American  troops 
had  arrived  in  France, 
under  the  command 
of  General  Pershing. 

Their  presence  did 
much  to  hearten 
France,  and  their 
cordial  reception  was 
an  inspiration  to 
America. 

721.  Preparations  for 
War.  —  Meanwhile 
the  country  began  to 
realize    what    war 
In  the  first  nine  months  of  hostilities  more  money 


GENERAL  PERSHING. 


1  Joyful  greetings  were  at  once  received  by  us  from  France  and  England. 
The  speeches  made  in  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  on  April  6  were 
ordered  to  be  printed  as  proclamations  and  read  in  the  schools  of  France. 
The  Star  Spangled  Banner  was  sung  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London. 
D'Anuunzio,  the  Italian  poet,  cabled  that  "for  the  soul  of  Italy  to-day  the 
capitol  at  Washington  has  become  a  beacon  light."  In  April  "Missions" 
from  France  and  England  visited  the  United  States  and  were  enthusiastically 
received.  In  May  came  the  Italian  Mission,  in  June,  the  Belgian.  The  out 
look  for  democracy  was  very  hopeful  when  to  all  this  was  added  the  news  of 
the  bloodless  revolution  in  Russia,  and  victory  seemed  not  so  far  away. 


§722]  AMERICA  AT   WAR.  565 

was  appropriated  than  in  all  the  previous  history  of  the 
United  States.  A  selective  draft  law  was  passed,  requir 
ing  all  men  between  twenty-one  and  thirty-one  —  some  ten 
millions  —  to  register  for  the  service.  Sixteen  huge  can 
tonments  —  cities  in  themselves  —  were  built  in  a  few 
months  to  train  the  new  army.  Over  twenty  million 
members  of  the  Eed  Cross  from  every  community  in  the 
country  sewed  and  knitted  for  the  soldiers.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Salvation  Army,  and  similar 
organizations  worked  for  the  army  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
Food  Administration  under  Herbert  Hoover  reached  into 
every  home,  saving  enormous  quantities  of  food  for  our  troops 
and  our  allies.  The  Shipping  Board  and  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation  increased  shipping  production  so  that  within  a 
year  they  were  building  about  140  ships  a  month.  A  Fuel 
Administration  was  appointed  in  August,  1917,  to  regulate 
the  price  and  distribution  of  coal,  and  four  months  later  the 
railroads  of  the  country  were  put  under  government  control. 

722.  The  German  Drives.  —  When  Congress  declared  war, 
most  Americans  thought  the  Allies  needed  supplies  more  than 
men,  but  soon  the  situation  changed.  By  September  it  was 
clear  that  Russia  was  exhausted,  and  in  October  the  Italian 
lines  were  broken  in  north  Italy.  This  enabled  the  Germans 
to  shift  a  large  number  of  divisions  to  the  western  front, 
where  they  prepared  during  the  winter  for  the  final  drive 
which  they  thought  was  to  win  the  war. 

On  March  21,  1918,  in  Picardy,  the  Germans  launched  the 
greatest  attack  in  history,  with  Amiens  as  its  objective. 
Nearly  a  million  well-supported  troops  moved  forward  on 
a  fifty-mile  front,  threw  the  opposing  British  back,  and  pressed 
forward  thirty-five  miles  at  the  point  of  farthest  advance. 
But  French  reinforcements  stemmed  the  tide,  and  the  Ger 
mans  failed  to  reach  Amiens. 

For  six  months  President  Wilson  had  urged  a  unified  com 
mand  for  the  Allies,  but  the  British  objected.  They  now 


566  WILSON'S   ADMINISTRATIONS,    1913-1921.  [§  724 

withdrew  their  objections  and  on  April  3  General  Ferdinand 
Foch  was  made  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Allied  and  Ameri 
can  armies.  Failing  in  Picardy,  the  Germans  launched  another 
drive  south  of  Ypres  on  April  9,  but  again  French  reinforce 
ments  arrived  in  time. 

These  German  drives  brought  home  to  all  the  need  of  men, 
and  England  appealed  to  America  to  throw  her  available  man 
power  into  action  as  fast  as  possible.  The  result  was  astound 
ing.  Over  a  quarter  of  a  million  men  were  transported  to 
France  each  month,  nearly  300,000  in  July,  so  that  by  Novem 
ber  America  had  over  2,000,000  troops  in  France. 

723.  Americans  in  Action.  —  Early  in  the  German  drive 
Pershing  offered  Foch  the  services  of  the  American  troops, 
and  a  few  days  later  the  First  Division  took  over  part  of 
the  Montdidier  sector,  distinguishing  themselves  in  some  des 
perate  fighting  at  Cantigny.  Three  other  drives  by  the  Ger 
mans  failed  to  break  through  the  Allied  lines,  although  they 
advanced  from  five  to  thirty  miles.  But  by  the  time  of  their 
last  drive  in  July,  America  had  a  million  and  a  quarter  men 
in  France,  so  that  Foch  had  adequate  reserves,  while  the  be 
havior  of  the  American  units  in  action  gave  him  confidence 
in  their  ability. 

Accordingly,  on  July  18  he  assumed  the  offensive.  The 
turning  point  in  the  war  had  come.  For  four  months  the 
Allies  advanced  while  the  Germans  retreated,  fighting  desper 
ately.  The  Americans  cut  off  the  famous  St.  Mihiel  salient, 
helped  clear  the  Argonne  Forest,  and,  advancing  on  both  sides 
of  the  Meuse,  threatened  the  German  lines  of  supply.  Mean 
while  the  British  and  French  were  pushing  forward  vigorously, 
so  that  Germany  realized  that  she  had  lost  the  war. 

724.  The  Armistice.  —  As  soon  as  Germany  was  put  on  the 
defensive,  she  began  to  discuss  an  armistice.  President 
Wilson,  who  had  become  the  spokesman  of  the  Allies,  insisted 
that  we  would  treat  only  with  a  ministry  responsible  to  the 


§  725]  THE  PEACE   TREATY.  567 

German  people,  not  to  the  Kaiser.      Meanwhile   the   Inter 
allied  Council  drew  up  the  terms  of  an  armistice. 

The  Germans  were  required  to  evacuate  immediately  all 
allied  territory,  and  Luxembourg,  Alsace-Lorraine,  Russia,  and 
Turkey,  to  withdraw  their  armies  beyond  the  Rhine,  and 
to  surrender  most  of  their  heavy  artillery,  airplanes,  sub 
marines,  and  warships.  On  November  9  the  Kaiser  abdicated ; 
on  the  10th  he  fled  to  Holland ;  and  on  the  llth  the  armistice 
was  signed. 

725.  The  Peace  Treaty.  —  It  was  agreed  that  the  Peace  Con 
ference  should  meet  in  Paris  in  January.  President  Wilson 
headed  the  American  delegation.  He  landed  in  France  in 
December,  and  for  some  weeks  traveled  in  England,  France, 
and  Italy,  universally  acclaimed  by  the  people.  But  the  war 
was  ended,  the  menace  of  Germany  was  past,  and  national 
rivalries  began  to  assert  themselves  among  the  representa 
tives  of  the  Allies  now  gathering  at  Paris. 

The  Conference  opened  on  January  18.  A  week  later  Presi 
dent  Wilson  urged  the  need  of  a  League  of  Nations  and  was 
appointed  chairman  of  a  commission  to  draft  the  covenant  of 
such  a  league.  The  Conference  unanimously  adopted  a  resolu 
tion  to  make  the  League  an  integral  part  of  the  treaty.  On 
February  14  Wilson  presented  his  first  draft  to  the  Confer 
ence,  and  on  the  next  day  sailed  to  America,  so  as  to  arrive 
before  the  expiration  of  Congress,  March  4. 

While  in  Washington  he  invited  the  members  of  the  Foreign 
Relations  Committee  to  dine  at  the  White  House,  and  ex 
plained  the  Covenant  to  them.  A  number  of  changes  were 
suggested,  and  later  ex-President  Taft,  Elihu  Root,  and 
Charles  E.  Hughes  proposed  amendments,  some  of  which 
were  embodied  in  the  final  draft.  On  April  5  Wilson  sailed 
for  France;  April  28  the  revised  Covenant  was  unanimously 
adopted  by  the  Conference ;  May  7  the  treaty  was  presented 
to  the  German  delegates;  and  June  28  it  was  signed  at 
Versailles  in  the  same  room  in  which  the  Kaiser's  grand- 


568  WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATIONS,   1913-1921.  [§  726 

father  had  been  crowned  Emperor  of  Germany  forty-eight 
years  before. 

The  next  day  the  President  sailed  for  home  and  on  July  10 
presented  the  treaty  to  the  Senate.  It  was  referred  to  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  which  spent  two  months  in 
deliberation  before  reporting  it  back  with  numerous  amend 
ments.  These  would  necessitate  reconsideration  by  the  many 
members  of  the  Peace  Conference  who  had  already  signed  the 
treaty,  so  the  President  decided  to  tour  the  country,  explain 
ing  the  treaty  to  the  people,  so  that  they  might  bring  pressure 
to  bear  on  the  Senate.  His  trip  extended  to  the  Pacific  Coast, 
and  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  On  his  way  home,  the 
President's  health  broke  down  at  Wichita,  Kansas,  on  Septem 
ber  26,  and  he  had  to  return  to  Washington.  The  public  was 
kept  in  the  dark  as  to  the  extent  of  his  illness. 

Meantime  the  Senate  was  taking  longer  to  consider  the 
treaty  than  the  Conference  took  to  draft  it.  Finally  Senator 
Lodge,  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations, 
introduced  a  number  of  amendments,  but  on  November  19 
the  Lodge  resolution  to  ratify  the  treaty  with  reservations 
was  defeated  41  to  53.  Ratification  without  reservations, 
that  is,  in  its  original  form,  was  then  defeated  38  to  53.  Thus 
the  treaty,  with  or  without  reservations,  failed  to  receive 
even  a  majority,  while  a  two-thirds  vote  is  necessary  to  ratify 
a  treaty.  This  deadlock  continued  for  months  until  finally, 
on  March  20,  1920,  the  rejected  treaty  was  sent  back  to  the 
President. 

726.  The  Election  of  1920.  —  Meantime  the  country  was 
becoming  interested  in  a  new  presidential  election.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Senator  Warren  G.  Harding  of  Ohio 
and  Governor  Calvin  Coolidge  of  Massachusetts,  while  the 
Democrats  chose  Governor  James  M.  Cox  of  Ohio  and  Assist 
ant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt.  President 
Wilson  had  hoped  to  make  the  coming  election  "  a  great  and 
solemn  referendum"  on  the  treaty  and  the  League,  but  so 


§  727]  THE  ELECTION  OF  1920.  569 

many  other  issues  were  injected  into  the  campaign  that  the 
question  was  anything  but  clear.  The  result  was  an  over 
whelming  victory  for  Harding  and  Coolidge,  who  received 
404  electoral  votes  to  127  for  Cox  and  Roosevelt.  The  Re 
publicans  also  carried  both  houses  of  Congress. 

727.  The  Close  of  the  Wilson  Administration.  —  The  Presi 
dent  accepted  the  result  of  the  election  with  equanimity, 
apparently  content  to  await  the  verdict  of  history.  His  ad 
ministration  had  witnessed  the  passage  of  much  desirable 
legislation,  including  the  seventeenth  amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution,  providing  for  the  direct  election  of  Senators  (May  31, 
1913),  the  eighteenth,  prohibiting  intoxicating  liquors  (January 
29, 1919),  and  the  nineteenth,  granting  woman  suffrage  (August 
26,  1920).  He  had  guided  the  country  successfully  through 
difficulties  equaled  only  by  those  of  Washington  and  Lincoln, 
and  had  helped  bring  to  a  successful  close  the  greatest  war 
in  history.  The  repudiation  of  his  administration  at  the  polls 
was  followed  by  a  reaction  which  showed  increasing  appre 
ciation  of  his  services  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  in 
December,  1920,  he  received  the  Nobel  Peace  Prize. 


CHAPTER   XLI. 

THE   ADMINISTRATION    OF   HARDING,    1921- 

728.  The  President's  Appointments.  —  Harding  was  inaugu 
rated  on  the  4th  of  March  with  simple  ceremonies.  He 
immediately  announced  his  cabinet  appointments,  which  were 


PRESIDENT  HARDING  AND  HIS  CABINET. 

at  once  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  They  were  as  follows : 
Secretary  of  State,  Charles  E.  Hughes,  of  New  York ;  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury,  Andrew  W.- Mellon,  of  Pennsylvania; 
Secretary  of  War,  John  W.  Weeks,  of  Massachusetts  ;  At 
torney-General,  Harry  M.  Daugherty,  of  Ohio;  Postmaster- 
General,  Will  H.  Hays,  of  Indiana;  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 

570 


§  730]  PROBLEMS  OF  CONGRESS.  571 

Edwin  Denby,  of  Michigan ;  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Albert 
B.  Fall,  of  New  Mexico;  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Henry 
Wallace,  of  Iowa;  Secretary  of  Commerce,  Herbert  Hoover, 
of  California ;  Secretary  of  Labor,  James  J.  Davis,  of  Illinois 
and  Pennsylvania. 

The  selection  of  Colonel  George  f  Harvey  as  ambassador 
to  England  aroused  considerable  protest,  but  the  choice  of 
ex-President  Taft  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  met 
with  almost  unanimous  approval. 

729.  The  Departments.  —  Under  Secretary  Hughes  the  De 
partment  of  State  pursued  an  active  and  progressive  policy, 
securing  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Germany  which  safeguarded 
the  interests  of  the  United  States,  stopping  with  a  firm  hand 
the   hostilities   which   had   begun    between   Costa    Rica   and 
Panama,  and  calling  an  Armament  Limitations  Conference  for 
Armistice   Day,   November    11,    1921,   at    which    the    Great 
Powers  and  China    discussed  disarmament  and   Far  Eastern 
questions. 

Under  Secretary  Hoover  the  Department  of  Commerce  pro 
moted  efficiency  in  industry  and  trade,  while  Hoover  also 
assumed  the  gigantic  burden  of  feeding  Russia  during  the 
worst  famine  in  her  history. 

Secretary  Weeks  set  himself  to  systematize  the  War  De 
partment  ;  Secretary  Denby  sent  the  bulk  of  the  fleet  to  the 
Pacific ;  and  Postmaster-General  Hays  tried  to  infuse  new 
spirit  into  the  Post  Office.  In  short,  the  executive  branch 
of  the  Government,  under  the  leadership  of  Harding,  tried 
to  bring  the  country  "  back  to  normalcy." 

730.  Congress.  —  To  Congress,  however,  fell  a  more  difficult 
task.     Pledged  as  it  was  to  reduce  expenses  and  taxes,  it  was 
severely   handicapped   by   huge   debts    and   interest    charges 
which  had  to  be  met.     To  reduce  taxes  without  reducing  its 
income  seemed  a  problem  too  difficult  to  solve.     Then,  too, 
various   interests   were   asking   favors.      The    manufacturers 


572  HARDING'S  ADMINISTRATION,    1921-  [§730 

wanted  more  tariff,  the  railroads  more  money,  the  American 
Legion  asked  a  bonus  for  the  soldiers.  In  the  face  of  these 
and  other  conflicting  interests,  Congress  seemed  unable  to  act, 
but  an  emergency  tariff  was  finally  passed  in  the  hope  of 
improving  business  conditions. 


APPENDIX  A. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

IN  CONGRESS,  JULY  4,  1TT6. 

A  DECLARATION  BY  THE  REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA,  IN  CONGRESS  ASSEMBLED. 

WHEN,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and 
equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle 
them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident: — That  all  men  are  created 
equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable 
rights  ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 
That,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men,  de 
riving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed ;  that,  whenever 
any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new  government, 
laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such 
form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happi 
ness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  governments  long  established 
should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes  ;  and  accordingly  all 
experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer  while 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to 
which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usur 
pations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce 
them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw 
off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security. 
Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies  ;  and  such  is  now 
the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  gov 
ernment.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of 
repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establish 
ment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

1 


2  APPENDIX  A. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for 
the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing 
importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be 
obtained ;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to 
them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  dis 
tricts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  repre 
sentation  in  the  legislature  —  a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable 
to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomforta 
ble,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with 
manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others 
to  be  elected,  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation, 
have  returned  to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise  ;  the  State  remain 
ing,  in  the  mean  time,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasions  from  with 
out,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States  ;  for  that 
purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  foreigners  ;  refusing 
to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  condi 
tions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent 
to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of  their 
offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of 
officers  to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the 
consent  of  our  Legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior  to, 
the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to 
our  constitutions,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ;  giving  his  assent  to 
their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us ; 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  mur 
ders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States  j 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  j 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent  j 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE. 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury  ; 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offenses  ; 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  province, 
establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  bounda 
ries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  intro 
ducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies ; 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and 
altering,  fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments  ; 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested 
with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  pro 
tection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to 
complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun  with 
circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  bar 
barous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas, 
to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their 
friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to 
bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian  savages, 
whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages, 
sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in 
the  most  humble  terms  ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only 
by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every 
act  which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  our  attentions  to  our  British  brethren. 
We  have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature 
to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them 
of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have 
appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity  ;  and  we  have  conjured 
them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations, 
which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence. 
They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity. 
We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  sepa 
ration,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war, 
in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  General  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the 


APPENDIX   A. 


world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  de 
clare,  That  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  Brit 
ish  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state 
of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved ;  and  that,  as  free 
and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace, 
contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  arid  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  independent  states  may  of  right  do.  And,  for  the  support  of  this 
declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence, 
we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred 
honor. 

The  foregoing  Declaration  was,  by  order  of  Congress,  engrossed,  and 
signed  by  the  following  members :  — 

JOHN   HANCOCK. 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS    BAY. 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE    ISLAND. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

NEW   YORK. 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


NEW    JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone, 


Charles  Carroll,  of  Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 
George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  5 

Resolved,  That  copies  of  the  Declaration  be  sent  to  the  several  assem 
blies,  conventions,  and  committees,  or  councils  of  safety,  and  to  the  severa\ 
commanding  officers  of  the  continental  troops ;  that  it  be  proclaimed  in 
each  of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  head  of  the  army. 


APPENDIX  B. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  OF   AMERICA. 

PREAMBLE. 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  com 
mon  defense,  promote  the  general  .welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of 
liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Consti 
tution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I.     LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENT. 
Section  I.     Congress  in  General. 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Repre 
sentatives. 

Section  II.    House  of  Representatives. 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States  ;  and  the  electors  in 
each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole 
number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of 
years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons. 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent 
term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.     The  num 
ber  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but 
each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative  ;  and  until  such  enumera 
te 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  7 

tion  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose 
three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one, 
Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight, 
Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South 
Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representations  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue   writs  of    election   to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other 
officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.     Senate. 

1 .  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof  for  six  years,  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as  may  be,  into  three 
classes.     The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the 
expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so 
that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if  vacancies  hap 
pen,  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of 
any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until 
the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

,3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro  tern- 
pore^  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The   Senate   shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all   impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.    When 
the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall  preside  ; 
and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  case  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  farther  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of 
honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States ;  but  the  party  convicted 


8  APPENDIX  B. 

shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment^ 
and  punishment  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.    Both  Houses. 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  senators  and 
representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof ; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  place  of  choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by 
law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.    The  Houses  Separately. 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifica 
tions  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum 
to  do  business  ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and 
may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such 
manner  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to 
time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in'  their  judgment 
require  secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house, 
on  any  question,  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be 
entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house  during  the  session  of  Congress  shall,  without  the  con 
sent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place 
than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.     Disabilities  of  Members. 

1.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States.     They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  breach 
of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the 
session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  or  returning  from  the 
same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be 
questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  9 

have  been  increased,  during  such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.    Mode  of  Passing  Laws. 

\.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as 
on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States ;  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it ;  but  if  not,  he  shall 
return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  origi 
nated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed 
to  reconsider  it.     If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  house 
shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections, 
to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  ap 
proved  by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.    But  in  all  such 
cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and 
the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.    If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned 
by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
-signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  ques 
tion  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him, 
or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limita 
tions  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.    Powers  granted  to  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power : 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States ;    but   all  duties,  imposts,  and   excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States  ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 


10  APPENDIX  B. 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors .  the  exclusive  right  to  their  re 
spective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and 
offenses  against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies ;  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  land  and  naval 
forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the 
officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  dis 
cipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
states  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  pur 
chased,  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and 
other  needful  buildings  ;  and, 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  depart 
ment  or  office  thereof. 

Section  IX.     Powers  denied  to  the   United  States. 
1.   The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  11 

Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight ;  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended 
unless  when,   in  case  of   rebellion  or   invasion,  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex-post-facto  law,  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be   given   by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall  vessels 
bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from 
time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States ;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title 
of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Section  X.     Powers  denied  to  the  States. 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation  ; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money  ;  emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex-post-facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obliga 
tion  of  contracts  ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  im 
posts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all 
duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports  shall  be  for  the 
use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject 
to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  times  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  en 
gage  in  war  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will 
not  admit  of  delays. 


12  APPENDIX  B. 

ARTICLE  II.     EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT. 
Section  I.     President  and  Vice- President. 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.     He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years, 
and,  together  with  the  Vice-president,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected  as  follows : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators 
and  representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ; 
but  no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or 
profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  bal 
lot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of 
the  same  State  with  themselves.     And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the 
persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which  list  they 
shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.     The  Presi 
dent  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate   and  House   of 
Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes   shall  then  be 
counted.     The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and 
have  an  equal    number  of  votes,  then   the    House   of   Representatives 
shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then,  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said 
House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.     But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall   be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from 
each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of 
a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of 
all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.     In  every  case,  after  the 
choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.     But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by 
ballot  the  Vice-President.]  l 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
the  day  on  which  they  will  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to 

1  Altered  by  the  Xllth  Amendment. 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  13 

the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  four 
teen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said 
office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-Preaident ;  and  the  Congress 
may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  ina 
bility,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until 
the  disability  be  removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com 
pensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the 
period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  fol 
lowing  oath  or  affirmation : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 


Section  II.     Powers  of  the  President. 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  when  called 
into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States  ;  he  may  require  the  opinion 
in  writing  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments 
upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices ;  and 
he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against 
the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds   of  the  senators  present 
concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  con 
suls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for  and 
which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the 
appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  President 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions,  which 
shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 


14  APPENDIX  B. 

Section  III.     Duties  of  the  President. 

He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the 
state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures 
as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them  ;  and  in  case  of  dis 
agreement  between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper ;  he  shall  receive 
ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws 
be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United 

States. 

Section  IV.     Impeachment  of  the  President. 

The  President,  Vice- President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction  of  trea 
son,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III.    JUDICIAL  DEPARTMENT. 

Section  L     United  States  Courts. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior 
courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior  ;  and  shall,  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  dimin 
ished  during  their  continuance  in  oifice. 

Section  II.    Jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Courts. 

\.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising 
under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority  ;  to  all  cases  affecting 
ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ;  to  all  cases  of  admi 
ralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  party  ;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States  ; 
between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State  ;  between  citizens  of  dif 
ferent  States ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under 
grants  of  different  States  ;  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof, 
and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects.1 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  con 
suls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact, 

i  Altered  by  Xlth  Amendment. 


THE    CONSTITUTION.  15 

with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall 
make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury  ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall 
have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the 
trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have 
directed. 

Section  III.     Treason. 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com 
fort.     No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  trea 
son  ;   but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of   blood,   or 
forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV.     THE  STATES  AND  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT. 
Section  I.     State  Hecords. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may,  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records, 
and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  II.     Privileges  of  Citizens,  etc. 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  jbhe  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered 
up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regu 
lation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due. 

Section  III.     New  States  and  Territories. 

I.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union  ;  but 
no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any 
other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more 
States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the 
States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 


16  APPENDIX  B. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,  and  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting,  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging 
to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  con 
strued  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  particular 
State. 

Section  IV.     Guarantee  to  the  States. 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  re 
publican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against 
invasion;  and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  executive 
(when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V.     POWER  OF  AMENDMENT. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  neces 
sary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  applica 
tion  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a 
convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be 
valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified 
by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conven 
tions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification 
may  be  proposed  by  Congress  ;  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may 
be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in 
any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the 
first  Article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of 
its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI.     PUBLIC  DEBT,  SUPREMACY  or  THE  CONSTITUTION,  OATH 
OF  OFFICE,  RELIGIOUS  TEST. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into  before  the  adop 
tion  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under 
this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in 
the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath 
or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever 
be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States. 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  11 

ARTICLE  VII.     RATIFICATION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

The  ratifications  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 
same. 

Done  in  Convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present,  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 


AMENDMENTS  TO   THE   CONSTITUTION. 
ARTICLE  I. 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  state, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre 
scribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  shall  not  be  vio 
lated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by 
oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia  when  in  active 
service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject 
for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb  ;  nor  shall 
be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  a  witness  against  himself ;  nor 


18  APPENDIX  B. 

be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  no* 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the 
accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have 
compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor  ;  and  to  have  the 
assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved  ;  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishment  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  con 
strued  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  powers  not  granted  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively  or  to 
the  people. 

ARTICLE  XL 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 

1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 


THE   CONSTITUTION.  19 

voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and 
of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 
and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate ;  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certifi 
cates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person 
have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers, 
not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately  by  ballot  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  repre 
sentation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and 
a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right 
of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next 
following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President 
shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice- 
President  ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice. 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist 
within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by   appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State 
wherein  they  reside.  No  States  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ; 


20  APPENDIX  B. 

nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  with 
out  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the 
equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States  ac 
cording  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  per 
sons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.     But  when  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive 
and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof, 
is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  members  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged, 
except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  represen 
tation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of 
such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or  elector 
of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  holding  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,    having  previously 
taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or 
judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same, 
or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.     But  Congress  may,  by 
a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any 
debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but 
all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  appropriate  legislation 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  any  State  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  appropriate  legislation 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 


THE  CONSTITUTION.  21 


ARTICLE  XVI.1 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  states, 
and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII.2 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof  for  six  years ;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
States  Legislatures. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies  ;  Provided,  that  the  Legislature  of  any  State  may 
empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until 
the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  Legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election  or 
term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the  Con 
stitution. 

ARTICLE  XVIII.3 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manufacture, 
sale  or  transportation   of   intoxicating  liquors  within,  the  importation 
thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all 
territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  beverage  purposes  is  hereby 
prohibited. 

2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent  power  to 
enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been  ratified  as 
an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States, 
as  provided  in  the  Constitution,  within  seven  years  of  the  date  of  the  sub 
mission  hereof  to  the  States  by  Congress. 

1  In  1893  an  income  tax  on  corporations  was  passed  as  an  amendment  to  the 
Wilson  Bill,  but  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court.     After 
years  of  agitation  the  Senate  on  July  7,  1907,  passed  the  above  amendment. 
On  July  12,  1907,  it  passed  the  House.     Alabama  was  the  first  state  to  ratify 
it  (1909).    In  1910  eight  states  ratified  it;  in  1911,  twenty-two  ;  in  1912,  three; 
and  in  1913,  enough  to  make  the  necessary  three  fourths  of  the  forty-eight 
United  States. 

2  Ratified  in  1913.  3  This  amendment  was  adopted  in  1919. 


22  APPENDIX  B. 

ARTICLE  XIX.1 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  sex. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 


i  This  amendment  was  adopted  in  1920. 


APPENDIX  0. 


LIST  OF  PRESIDENTS  AND  VICE  PRESIDENTS,   WITH  THEIK 
TERMS   OF   OFFICE. 

1789-1793  —  George  Washington. 

John  Adams. 
1793-1797  —George  Washington. 

John  Adams. 
1797-1801  —John  Adams. 

Thomas  Jefferson. 
1801-1805  —Thomas  Jefferson. 

Aaron  Burr. 
1805-1809  —  Thomas  Jefferson. 

George  Clinton. 
1809-1813— James  Madison. 

George  Clinton. 
1813-1817  —  James  Madison. 

Elbridge  Gerry. 
1817-1821  —James  Monroe. 

D.  D.  Tompkins. 
1821-1825 — James  Monroe. 

D.  D.  Tompkins. 
1825-1829 — John  Quincy  Adams. 

John  C.  Calhoun. 
1829-1833  —Andrew  Jackson. 

John  C.  "Calhoun. 
1833-1837  —  Andrew  Jackson. 

Martin  Van  Buren. 
1837-1841  —Martin  Van  Buren. 

R.  M.  Johnson. 
1841-1845  — Wm.  Henry  Harrison. 

John  Tyler  (became  President,  1841). 
1845-1849  —  James  K.  Polk. 

George  M.  Dallas. 
23 


24  APPENDIX  C. 

1849-1853  — Zachary  Taylor. 

Millard  Fillmore  (became  President,  1850). 
1853-1857— Franklin  Pierce. 

William  R.  King, 
1857-1861 — James  Buchanan. 

J.  C.  Breckinridge. 
1861-1865 — Abraham  Lincoln. 

Hannibal  Hamlin. 
1865-1869— Abraham  Lincoln. 

Andrew  Johnson  (became  President,  1865). 
1869-1873  —  U.  S.  Grant. 

Schuyler  Colfax. 
1873-1877— U.  S.  Grant. 

Henry  Wilson. 
1877-1881—  R,  B.  Hayes. 

Wm.  A.  Wheeler. 
1881-1885  — Jas.  A.  Garfield. 

Chester  A.  Arthur  (became  President,  1881). 
1885-1889  —  Grover  Cleveland. 

T.  A.  Hendricks. 
1889-1893  —  Benjamin  Harrison. 

L.  P.  Morton. 
1893-1897  —  Grover  Cleveland. 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson. 
1897-1901  —  Wm.  McKinley. 

G.  A.  Hobart. 
1901-1905  — Wm.  McKinley. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  (became  President,  1901> 
1905-1909  —Theodore  Roosevelt. 

Charles  W.  Fairbanks. 
1909-1913  — William  II.  Taft. 

James  S.  Sherman. 
1913-1917  —  Woodrow  Wilson. 

Thomas  R.  MarshalL 
1917-1921  —  Woodrow  Wilson. 

Thomas  R.  Marshall. 
1921-          —Warren  G.  Harding. 

Calvin  Coolidge. 


INDEX. 


The  References  are  to  Sections,  unless  otherwise  stated. 


p.  =  page, 
n.  =  footnote. 

Abolitionists,  in  the  North,  359-360; 
refused  right  of  petition,  360;  pub 
lications  prohibited  in  the  South, 
360,  391 ;  form  Liberty  Party,  375. 

Aborigines,  1. 

Acadia,  joined  to  Massachusetts,  60 ; 
the  French  in,  98,  104 ;  inhabitants 
dispersed,  112. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  minister 
at  London,  502,  511. 

Adams,  John,  portrait,  275;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  205  n.;  opposes 
Washington's  policy,  192;  Vice 
President,  255;  in  first  Congress, 
266;  elected  President,  275;  de- 
'feated  by  Jefferson,  281. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  portrait,  333; 
biographical  note,  p.  255  n. ;  minis 
ter  to  Russia,  308 ;  commissioner  at 
Ghent,  312 ;  Secretary  of  State,  320 ; 
negotiates  treaty  with  Spain,  324; 
and  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  326; 
elected  President,  334;  character  of 
administration,  335;  opposition  to, 
336-340;  in  Congress,  360. 

A.dams,  Samuel,  portrait,  127 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  93  n. ;  opposes 
Stamp  Act,  127 ;  demands  removal 
of  British  soldiers,  132;  organizes 
committees  of  correspondence,  138 ; 
opposes  Washington's  policy,  192; 
opposes  Constitutional  Convention, 
246. 


(C.)  =  Confederate. 
(U.)  =  Union. 

Agriculture,  chief  occupation  in 
1789,  261;  Department  of,  estab 
lished,  500. 

Aguinaldo,  Philippine  leader,  673, 
674. 

Alabama,  admitted,  329;  secedes, 
440;  readmitted,  574. 

Alabama,  Confederate  cruiser, 
construction  of,  502 ;  defeat  of,  541. 

Alabama  Claims,  585. 

Alaska,  purchase  of,  p.  502  n.;  seal 
fisheries  of,  641 ;  territorial  govern 
ment  established,  676. 

Albany  Congress,  in  1690,  66;  in 
1754,  110. 

Albany  Regency,  342. 

Albemarle,  N.C.,  founded  by  Vir 
ginia  Dissenters,  72.  See  (7aro- 
linos. 

Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  277. 

Allen,  Ethan,  takes  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga,  145. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution, 
ten,  adopted,  p.  198  n.  2;  twelfth, 
281;  thirteenth,  546,  p.  435  n.,  568; 
fourteenth,  571 ;  fifteenth,  583. 

America,  discovered  by  the  North 
men,  4;  discovered  by  Columbus, 
5,  7  ;  origin  of  name,  10. 

American  flag.    See  Flag. 

American  party.  See  Know  Noth 
ing. 

American  Policy,  332. 


26 


INDEX. 


Amnesty  Act,  584. 

Anarchists,  625. 

Anderson,  Major  Robert,  (U.),  at 

Fort  Sumter,  441,  442,  452. 
Andre",  John,  meeting  with  Arnold, 

217;  arrest,  218;  execution,  220. 
Andrew,  John  A.,  war  governor  of 

Massachusetts,  462. 
Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  portrait,  59; 

biographical  note,  p.  50  n.;  royal 

governor    of    New    England,    59; 

governor    of    New   York,    65;    in 

New  Jersey,  68. 
Annexation,     of     Texas,    375;     of 

Hawaii,  672. 
Antietam  (or  Sharpsburg) ,  battle  of, 

505 ;  official  returns,  p.  401  n.  1. 
Anti-Masons,   formation    of   party, 

361,  p.  284  n.  2. 
Anti-Monopoly  Party,  in  campaign 

of  1884,  617. 

Anti-slavery  movement,  in  colo 
nial  times,  327 ;    development  of, 

359,   360,   390-392;     Liberty  Party 

formed,  375 ;   in  Kansas,  413,  414. 

See     Abolitionists,    Slavery,    and 

Fugitive   Slave  Law. 
Appomattox    Courthouse,    Lee's 

surrender  at,  551. 
Arbitration,  of  the  fisheries  question, 

641 ;    of    the  Venezuelan    dispute, 

651. 

Archdale,  John,  governor  and  pro 
prietor  of  North  Carolina,  76. 
Arkansas,  organized  as  a  territory, 

328;  secedes,  453;  readmitted,  574. 
Arlington,  Lord,  received  grant  of 

Virginia,  43. 
Armstrong,  General,  Secretary  of 

War  in  War  of  1812,  305,  306,  310; 

succeeded  by  Monroe,  311. 
Army,     Continental,     established, 

143,  144;  reorganized,  176;  mutiny 

in,  222. 
Army,   United   States,  in  War  of 

1812,  300;  in  Mexican  War,  386;  in 

1865,  555;  in  Spanish  \Var,  669,  670. 
Arnold,    Benedict,    portrait,    151; 

biographical  note,  p.  113  n. ;  leads 

expedition    into    Canada,   151 ;    at 

Valcour's  Island,  161;  at  Saratoga, 


181;  at  Fort  Stanwix,  182;  his 
treason,  215-217;  aids  Cornwallis 
in  the  South,  229. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  portrait,  609 •, 
biographical  note,  p.  480  n. ;  elected 
Vice  President,  607 ;  becomes  Presi 
dent,  609;  events  of  his  administra 
tion,  610-617. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  framed, 
239-241 ;  weaknesses  of,  242 ;  aban 
doned,  248. 

Ashburton  Treaty,  372. 

Assistance,  Writs  of,  129. 

Assumption  of  state  debts,  266. 

Atlanta,  capture  of,  536,  p.  428  n.  1. 

Atlantic  cable,  laying  of,  447. 

Australian  ballot  system,  intro 
duced,  621. 

Bacon's  rebellion,  44. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  portrait, 
11  (p.  14) ;  biographical  note, 
p.  14  n. ;  discovers  the  "  South 
Sea"  (Pacific  Ocean),  11. 

Ball's  Bluff,  battle  of,  468. 

Baltimore,  Lord.     See  Calvert. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  founded,  p.  39  n.; 
population  in  1800,  262 ;  riot  in,  462. 

Bancroft,  George,  449. 

Bank,  United  States,  established, 
266 ;  fails  of  re-charter,  317 ;  rees 
tablished,  317 ;  opposed  by  Jackson, 
361-366 ;  later  history,  364 ;  opposed 
by  Tyler,  372,  373.  See  Banks. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  in  Congress, 
416 ;  in  the  Civil  War,  491,  493. 

Banks,  state, 317, 364-366 ;  "pet," 364 ; 
"wild  cat,"  365;  national,  estab 
lished  in  1863,  457 ;  banking  legis 
lation  in  1900,  677. 

Barbary  States,  war  with,  285. 

Barn-burners,  389. 

Battle  above  the  Clouds  (Lookout 
Mountain),  521. 

Battle  of  the  Crater  (Petersburg), 
532. 

Bayard,  James  A.,  supports  Jeffer 
son,  281 ;  at  St.  Petersburg,  308;  at 
Ghent,  312. 

Beauregard,  General,  (C.),  portrait, 
467;  biographical  note,  p.  366  n.; 


INDEX. 


27 


fires  on  Sumter,  452;  at  Bull  Run, 
467;  succeeds  A.  S.  Johnston,  478; 
succeeded  by  Bragg,  481. 

Belknap,  W.  W.,  impeachment  of, 
590. 

Bell,  John,  nominated  for  the  Presi 
dency,  435 

Bellomont,  Earl  of,  royal  governor 
of  New  York,  66. 

Bemis  Heights,  battle  of,  181. 

Bennington,  battle  of,  179. 

Benton,  Thomas  H.,  portrait,  355 
(p.  275) ;  biographical  note,  p.  275 
n.  2;  opposes  Foote's  Resolutions, 
355;  on  Folk's  administration,  378 ; 
proposed  as  commander  in  the  Mexi 
can  War,  379. 

Bering-,  Vitus,  Russian  explorer,  9. 

Bering  Sea  fisheries,  641. 

Berkeley,  Lord,  received  grant  of 
New  Jersey,  67 ;  sells  to  Quakers, 
68. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  royal  gov 
ernor  of  Virginia,  42-45 ;  receives 
grant  of  the  Carolinas,  73. 

Berlin  Decree,  Napoleon's,  292. 

Bienville,  Sieur  de.    See  Le  Moyne. 

Black,  Jeremiah  S.,  441. 

Black  Hawk  War,  p.  289  n.  1. 

Elaine,  James  G.,  portrait,  619; 
biographical  note,  p.  486  n. ;  Secre 
tary  of  State  for  Garfield,  608; 
candidate  for  the  Presidency,  619; 
Secretary  of  State  for  Harrison, 
629,  632,  639-641. 

Blair,  Rev.  James,  founder  of  Col 
lege  of  William  and  Mary,  45. 

Bland-Allison  Silver  Bill,  604,  627. 

Blockade,  of  the  port  of  Boston, 
136;  in  War  of  1812,  292-294;  of 
Southern  ports,  455,  4(55,  474,  529, 
540. 

Bonds,  government,  456,  457,  596, 627, 
677 ;  confederate,  458,  529. 

Bonne  Homme  Richard  and  Serapis, 

.     battle  of,  211. 

Boone,  Daniel,  portrait,  201;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  153  n. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  552. 

Border  States  in  the  Civil  War,  453, 
463,  474. 


Boston,  Mass.,  founded,  38;  siege  of, 
150;  in  1800,  262;  great  fire,  587. 

Boston  Massacre,  132. 

Boston  Port  Bill,  136 ;  effect  on  the 
colonies,  138. 

Boston  "Tea  Party,"  135. 

Boundary  Disputes,  93,  258,  272, 
372,  377,  378,  586. 

Braddock's  defeat,  111. 

Bradford,  William,  second  gov 
ernor  of  Plymouth,  34;  writings 
of,  84. 

Bradstreet,  Mrs.  Anne,  84. 

Bragg,  Gen.  Braxton,  (C.),  portrait, 
480;  biographical  note,  p.  379  n. ; 
succeeds  Beauregard,  481 ,  his  raid 
into  Kentucky,  481 ;  at  Stone  River, 
482;  in  the  Chattanooga  campaign, 
518-521. 

Brandy  wine,  battle  of  the,  186. 

Brant,  Joseph,  Mohawk  chief,  at 
Oriskany,  182;  education  and 
travels,  204. 

Breckinridge,  John  C.,  elected 
Vice  President,  417 ;  candidate  for 
the  Presidency,  435. 

Brewster,  William,  Pilgrim  elder, 
32. 

Brock,  Gen.  Isaac,  Canadian  leader, 
302;  falls  at  Queenstown,  303. 

Brooks,  Preston  S.,  his  assault  on 
Sumner,  415. 

Brown,  Gen.  Jacob,  at  battle  of 
Ogdensburg,  303  ;  given  command 
in  Canada,  309. 

Brown,  John,  portrait,  432;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  336  n. ;  in  Kansas, 
413 ;  raid  on  Harper's  Ferry,  432. 

Brownists,  32. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  portrait,  655 
(p.  513)  ;  biographical  note,  p.  512 
n.  2;  candidate  of  Democratic  and 
Populist  parties,  655,  678. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  350  (p.  270). 

Buchanan,  James,  portrait,  424; 
biographical  note,  p.  325  n. ;  can 
didate  for  Presidential  nomination 
in  1852,  404 ;  and  the  Ostend  Mani 
festo,  408;  elected  President,  417; 
character  of  his  administration, 
423;  attitude  toward  Kansas,  424; 


28 


INDEX. 


and  the  Mormons,  426;  and  seces 
sion,  440,  450. 

Buckner,  Gen.  Simon  B.,  655. 

Buell,  Gen.  D.  C.,  commands  Depart 
ment  of  Ohio,  476;  at  Shiloh,  478; 
drives  Bragg  from  Kentucky,  481. 

Buena  Vista,  battle  of,  383. 

Bull  Run  (or  Manassas),  first  battle 
of,  467;  official  returns,  p.  367  n.; 
second  battle  of,  504. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  147. 

Burgesses,  Virginia  House  of,  27, 28, 
43,  45,  95. 

Burgoyne,  Gen.  John,  portrait,  180 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  135  n. ;  joins 
British  army  in  America,  146; 
checked  by  Schuyler,  178 ;  surren 
ders  at  Saratoga,  181. 

Burke,  Edmund,  opposes  taxing  the 
colonies,  126 ;  opposes  "Five  Acts," 
137. 

Burns,  Anthony,  fugitive  slave, 
p.  311  n. 

Burnside,  Gen.  A.  E.,  portrait,  50(5 
(p.  402);  biographical  note,  p.  401 
n.  2 ;  captures  Roanoke  Island,  487 ; 
supersedes  McClellan,  505;  de 
feated  at  Fredericksburg,  506 ;  su 
perseded  by  Hooker,  506 ;  at  Knox- 
ville,  519. 

Burr,  Aaron,  intrigues  for  the  Presi 
dency,  281 ;  in  election  of  1804, 288 ; 
his  conspiracy  and  trial,  289,  290; 
kills  Hamilton  in  a  duel,  289. 

Butler,  Gen.  Benjamin  F.,  portrait, 
533;  biographical  note,  p.  425  n. ; 
at  New  Orleans,  488;  commands 
Army  of  the  James,  530;  at  Ber 
muda  Hundred,  533;  nominated 
for  the  Presidency,  617. 

Cabinet,  President's,  organization  of, 
266,  p.  197  n. 

Cable.    See  Atlantic  Cable. 

Cabot,  John,  licensed  by  Henry  VII. 
of  England,  8;  accounts  of  voy 
ages  unsatisfactory,  8. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  portrait,  9;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  11  n.  1. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  portrait,  300;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  226  n.;  member 


of  "War-Hawk"  party,  299;  atti 
tude  toward  internal  improve 
ments,  318,  338;  Secretary  of  War, 
320;  Vice  President,  333;  attitude 
toward  protective  tariff,  316,  340; 
his  "Exposition,"  341;  alienation 
from  Jackson,  352;  and  nullifica 
tion,  358  ;  Secretary  of  State  for 
Tyler,  374 ;  supports  annexation  of 
Texas,  374;  advocates  right  of  se 
cession,  395 ;  death  of,  400. 

California,  question  of  acquisition, 
378 ;  influence  on  slavery  question, 
393 ;  gold  discovered,  394. 

Calvert,  Cecilius,  second  Lord  Bal 
timore,  portrait,  40;  founds  Mary 
land,  39. 

Calvert,  Charles,  Governor  of  Mary 
land,  40;  becomes  third  Lord  Bal 
timore,  40. 

Calvert,  George,  first  Lord  Balti 
more,  portrait,  39;  biographical 
note,  p.  37  n.;  secures  charter  for 
Maryland,  39. 

Calvert,  Leonard,  his  difficulties  in 
Maryland,  40. 

Camden,  battle  of,  214. 

Cameron,  Simon,  Secretary  of  War, 
451;  succeeded  by  Stanton,  475; 
Minister  to  Russia,  475. 

Canada,  secured  by  Great  Britain, 
115;  Arnold's  expedition  into,  151; 
in  the  War  of  1812,  300-302,  309  ; 
revolution  in,  370;  fishery  troubles 
with,  586. 

Canals.  See  Internal  Improvements 
and  Erie  Canal. 

Canning,  George,  British  Minister, 
and  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  325. 

Carleton,  Sir  Guy,  expedition,  161. 

Carolinas,  the,  Albemarle  founded, 
72 ;  granted  to  Clarendon  and 
Berkeley,  73;  Clarendon  settled, 
73;  Charleston  founded,  75;  sur 
render  charters,  92.  See  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

Carpet  Baggers,  575. 

Carteret,  Philip,  first  governor  of 
New  Jersey,  67. 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  receives 
grant  of  New  Jersey,  67. 


INDEX. 


29 


Cartier,  Jacques,  French  explorer, 
portrait,  14 ;  biographical  note,  p.  18 
n.  1 ;  discovers  St.  Lawrence,  14. 

Carver,  John,  first  governor  of  Plym 
outh,  34. 

Cass,  Lewis,  candidate  for  the  Presi 
dency  in  1848,  389;  in  Buchanan's 
Cabinet,  423. 

Catholics,  in  Maryland,  39-41;  in 
Canada,  136. 

Caucus,  nomination  by,  332,  345. 

Centennial  Exposition,  595. 

Cerro  Gordo,  battle  of,  384. 

Cervera,  Admiral,  at  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  668,  669. 

Chambersburg,  Pa.,  burning  of, 
533. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  French  ex 
plorer,  portrait,  15;  biographical 
note,  p.  20  n. ;  establishes  perma 
nent  colony  at  Quebec,  16. 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  523. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  350. 

Charles  I.,  defied  by  Virginia  Bur 
gesses,  28 ;  grants  patent  for  Mary 
land,  39. 

Charles  II.,  grants  Virginia  to  Ar 
lington  and  Culpepper,  43;  recalls 
Berkeley,  44;  conquers  New  Am 
sterdam,  56;  interferes  in  Massa 
chusetts,  56,  58;  makes  grant  to 
Peun,  69;  and  tbe  Carqliuas,  73. 

Charleston,  S.C.,  settled,  75,  76; 
population  in  1800,  262. 

Charlestown,  Mass.,  founded,  38. 

Charter  Oak,  59. 

Charters,  of  the  Virginia  Company, 
21,  22,  26;  of  the  Dutch  Company, 
30 ;  of  Plymouth,  35 ;  of  Massachu 
setts,  37,  38,  47,  58,  60 ;  of  Connec 
ticut,  56, 59, 60, 92 ;  of  Rhode  Island, 
49,  59,  60,  92;  of  the  Carolinas,  92. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  portrait,  436; 
biographical  note,  p.  340  n.;  anti- 
slavery  leader,  400;  candidate  for 
-  Presidential  nomination,  436;  in 
Lincoln's  Cabinet,  451,  545;  ap 
pointed  Chief  Justice,  545. 

Chase,  Samuel,  impeachment  of, 
291. 

Chatham,  Earl  of.    See  Pitt. 


Chattanooga,  battles  of,  518-522 ;  es 
timated  forces,  p.  414  n.  1. 

Cherokee  Indians,  in  Tennessee^ 
203;  in  Georgia,  339. 

Cherry  Valley  Massacre,  205. 

Chesapeake  and  Leopard,  battle  of, 
293. 

Chesapeake  and  Shannon,  battle  of, 
304  (p.  233). 

Chicago,  the  great  fire,  587 ;  World's 
Fair  at,  652. 

Chickamauga,  battle  of,  518;  offi 
cial  returns,  p.  411  n. 

Chile,  difficulty  with,  640. 

China,  Boxer  uprising  in,  680. 

Chinese  immigration.  See  Immi 
gration. 

Chippewa\  battle  of,  309. 

Churubusco,  battle  of,  384. 

Cities,  in  1800,  262;  in  1860-1870,  703. 

Civil  Bights  Bill,  p.  454  n. 

Civil  Service  Reform,  Jefferson's 
attitude  toward,  284;  association 
formed,  592;  attitude  of  Hayes, 
p.  473  n. ;  the  Republicans  and, 
608  ;  Peudleton  Bill,  616 ;  extended 
by  Cleveland,  620 ;  McKinley's  atti 
tude  toward,  656. 

Civil  War,  beginnings  of,  450-474; 
first  war  proclamation,  453;  seat 
of,  459-461;  foreign  difficulties, 
464,  472,  473,  502,  511;  campaigns 
of  1861,  466-471;  campaigns  of 
1862,  475-513 ;  opposition  to,  in  the 
North,  512;  513,  526,  542,  543,  547 ; 
campaigns  of  1863,  514-529;  cam 
paigns  of  1864,  530-546 ;  efforts  for 
peace,  547 ;  campaigns  of  1865,  547- 
551 ;  magnitude  of,  555-560 ;  lessons 
of,  560. 

Claiborne,  William,  opposes  Lord 
Baltimore  in  Maryland,  40;  com 
missioner  in  Virginia,  42. 

Clarendon,  Earl  of,  receives  grant 
of  the  Carolinas,  73. 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  portrait, 
208 ;  biographical  note,  p.  158  n. ;  hia 
conquest  of  the  Northwest,  209. 

Clark,  William,  explores  Louisiana 
territory,  287  (p.  218). 

Clay,  Henry,  portraits,  330,  395;  bio- 


30 


INDEX. 


graphical  note,  p.  252  n. ;  advocates 
war  with  England  in  1812,  299; 
commissioner  at  Ghent,  312 ;  frames 
second  Missouri  Compromise,  330; 
candidate  for  the  Presidency,  333 ; 
Secretary  of  State,  334,  335;  frames 
compromise  tariff  in  1833,  358 ;  sup 
ports  the  Bank,  361;  and  the  sur 
plus,  363 ;  Whig  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  in  1844,  375;  and  the 
Texas  question,  374;  frames  Com 
promise  of  1850,  395 ;  and  the  Pan 
ama  canal,  401 ;  death  of,  404. 

Clayton,  John  M.,  Secretary  of  State 
for  Taylor,  401;  negotiates  treaty 
with  England,  401. 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  401. 

Clemens,  Samuel  L.,  70S. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  portrait,  621 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  487  n. ;  elected 
President,  619 ;  character  of  his  ad 
ministration,  620;  extends  Civil 
Service  regulations,  620;  defeated 
hy  Harrison,  628;  second  election, 
643;  character  of  second  adminis 
tration,  644;  intercedes  for  the 
Cubans,  659. 

Cliff-dwellers,  2;  illustration  of 
dwellings,  p.  4. 

Clinton,  George,  288. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  joins  British 
army  in  America,  146;  failure  of 
first  Southern  expedition,  162;  in 
New  York,  185;  in  command  of 
British,  195;  evacuates  Philadel 
phia,  195;  at  Monmouth,  196;  sec 
ond  campaign  in  the  South,  197, 
213,  214. 

Cobb,  Howell,  444,  450. 

Coinage.    See  Currency. 

Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  531 ;  official 
returns,  p.  424  n.  1. 

Colleges,  William  and  Mary  founded, 
45;  Harvard  founded,  46. 

Colonial  Congress.    See  Congress. 

Colonial  Spirit  in  the  states,  263. 

Colonies,  American,  at  end  of  the 
17th  century,  77-90;  development 
of,  91-116. 

Colonization,  theory  of,  19,  20; 
American  Society  of,  327. 


Columbia,  S.C.,  burning  of,  548 
p.  437  n. 

Columbia  River,  discovery  of,  323. 

Columbian  Exposition,  652. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  portrait. 
5 ;  biographical  note,  p.  7  n.  1 ;  his 
theories,  5;  Toscanelli's  map,  5 
(p.  8) ;  his  motives  and  difficulties, 
6 ;  voyages,  7 ;  results  of  his  dis 
coveries,  7. 

Commerce,  in  the  colonies,  81,  87, 
117 ;  during  the  Napoleonic  re'gime, 
292;  of  the  United  States,  336; 
during  the  Civil  War,  455;  inter 
state,  623. 

Committee  of  Safety,  138. 

Committees  of  Correspondence, 
138. 

Compromises,  in  the  Constitution, 
252;  first  and  second  Missouri, 
329-331;  tariff,  358;  of  1850,  395- 
398;  Crittenden's,  443. 

Concord,  battle  of,  143. 

Confederacy,  New  England.  See 
New  England. 

Confederacy,  Southern,  estab 
lished,  444;  constitution  of,  444; 
bonds  of,  458,  529;  recognized  by 
Great  Britain,  464. 

Confederation,  articles  of,  govern 
ment  under,  238-243. 

Congress,  Colonial,  66, 110, 127;  pro 
vincial,  140;  First  Continental, 
139;  Second  Continental,  144.  See 
Congress  of  the  United  States. 

Congress  of  the  United  States, 
established  under  the  Constitution, 
253;  proceedings  of  first,  266;  in 
the  Civil  War,  500  ;  and  Andrew 
Johnson,  567,  577-580;  reconstruc 
tion  policy  of,  571. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  609. 

Connecticut,  settlements  in,  50,  51; 
adopts  a  written  constitution,  51; 
joins  New  England  Confederacy, 
53;  charter  of,  56;  59,  60;  in  1700, 
77. 

Conscription,  in  the  North,  526;  in 
the  South,  527. 

Constitution,  conventions  called, 
244,  245;  obstacles  to,  248-251; 


INDEX. 


31 


compromises  in,  252;  character 
istics  of,  253 ;  ratification  of,  254 ; 
amendments  to,  p.  198  n.  2,  281 
(p.  210),  546,  568,  571,  572,  583; 
"  compact  "  theory  of,  279, 356 ;  and 
slavery,  418-420 ;  text  of,  Appendix 
B,  pp.  548-562. 

Constitution  of  the  Confederate 
States,  444. 

Constitution  and  Guerriere,  battle  of, 
304. 

Continental  Congress.  See  Con 
gress. 

Conventions,  constitutional,  244- 
252;  state,  254,  358,  440;  Hartford, 
315;  first  nominating,  332,  345; 
Southern,  434,  435. 

Conway  Cabal,  193. 

Coode,  John,  leads  revolt  in  Mary 
land,  41. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  350. 

Cooper,  Peter,  596. 

Copyright  law,  international,  643. 

Corinth,  taking  of,  479. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  portrait,  214 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  163  n. ;  in  New 
Jersey,  168;  at  the  Brandywine, 
186 ;  moves  to  the  South,  213 ;  at 
Guilford  Courthouse,  227 ;  retreats 
to  Yorktown,  229 ;  surrenders,  233. 

Coronado,  Francesco  Vasquez, 
Spanish  explorer,  13. 

Corporations  and  trusts,  617,  623, 
707,  709. 

Correspondence,  Committees  of, 
138. 

Cortereal,  Gaspar,  Portuguese  ex 
plorer,  9. 

Cortez,  Hernando,  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  conquers  Mexico,  2,  13. 

Cotton  gin,  invented,  p.  224  n. ; 
makes  slavery  profitable,  327. 

Cowpens,  battle  of,  225. 

Crawford,  William  H.,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  320 ;  nominated 
for  the  Presidency,  333 ;  framer  of 
Tenure  of  Office  Act  in  1820,  351, 

Credit  Mobilier,  590. 

Creek  Indians,  3 ;  defeated  by  Jack 
son,  307  ;  in  Alabama,  307;  in 
Georgia,  339. 


Crittenden,  Senator,  proposes  com 
promise  on  slavery,  443. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  and  Maryland, 
40 ;  attitude  of  Massachusetts,  54 ; 
menaces  New  Netherlands,  64. 

Crown  Point,  taken  by  English, 
112. 

Cuba,  and  the  South,  402,  407;  and 
the  Ostend  Manifesto,  408;  Vir- 
ginius  affair,  594;  and  War  with 
Spain,  658-670;  independence  of, 
671;  695. 

Culpepper,  Lord,  receives  grant  of 
Virginia,  43. 

Currency,  paper,  174,  221,  364,  456, 
458,  529,  596,  605 ;  gold  and  silver, 
366,  456,  604,  605,  634,  635,  643,  646- 
648,  655,  677. 

Curtis,  B.  R.,  and  Dred  Scott  deci 
sion,  418,  419. 

Curtis,  Gen.  S.  B.,  (U.),  at  battle  of 
Pea  Ridge,  480. 

Curtis,  George  William,  aboli 
tionist,  421;  head  of  Civil  Service 
Commission,  592;  supports  Cleve 
land,  619  (p.  487): 

Gushing,  Caleb,  portrait,  405;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  317  n. ;  in  Pierce's 
Cabinet,  405. 

Custer,  Gen.  George  A.,  portrait, 
594 ;  biographical  note,  p.  467  n. 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  royal  governor, 
27. 

Dana,  Charles  A.,  at  Grant's  head 
quarters,  477  (p.  376) . 

Dare,  Virginia,  first  white  child  born 
in  America,  p.  22  n. 

Davenport,  John,  founder  of  New 
Haven,  51. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  portrait,  444;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  345  n. ;  in  the 
Mexican  War,  383;  pro-slavery 
leader,  400;  in  Pierce's  Cabinet, 
405 ;  frames  resolutions  on  slavery, 
433;  opposes  Crittenden's  compro 
mise,  443;  elected  President  of  the 
Confederacy,  444;  interference  in 
military  affairs,  535,  p.  427  n.  2; 
capture  and  imprisonment,  565. 

Debt,  national,  266,  364,  627. 


32 


INDEX. 


Debts,  state,  assumption  of,  266. 

Decatur,  Lieut.  Stephen,  portrait, 
285;  biographical  note,  p.  215  n.  1 ; 
defeats  Barbary  pirates,  285;  in 
War  of  1812,  304. 

Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights, 
139. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  R. 
H.  Lee's  resolutions,  1(54;  framed 
by  Jefferson,  164  (p.  123) ;  signed, 
164;  purport  of,  165;  text  of,  Ap 
pendix  A,  pp.  543-547. 

De  Kalb,  offers  services  to  Ameri 
cans,  175. 

Delaware,  Lord,  royal  governor  of 
Virginia,  27. 

Delaware,  settled  by  Swedes,  63; 
granted  to  Penn,  69,  70;  becomes 
a  separate  province,  71. 

Democratic  party,  rise  of,  344,  p. 
284  n.  1 ;  discredited  by  Van  Buren, 
370 ;  supports  annexation  of  Texas, 
375;  divides  on  slavery  question, 
389;  favors  Compromise  of  1850, 
404 ;  in  election  of  1856,  417 ;  divides 
on  "Squatter  sovereignty,"  435; 
in  election  of  1860,  435,  436 ;  in  the 
Civil  War,  439,  513,  543;  in  elec 
tion  of  1872,  588  ;  in  1876,  597 ; 
elects  Cleveland,  619,  643;  in  189G, 
655. 

Democratic-Republican  party,  led 
by  Jefferson,  268;  favors  war  with 
France,  -271 ;  in  election  of  1796, 
275;  in  election  of  1800,  281,  283; 
theories  compared  with  Jackson's, 
344. 

D'Estaing,  Count,  in  charge  of 
French  fleet,  197 ;  at  Newport,  197 ; 
retires  to  West  Indies,  197. 

Dewey,  Admiral  George,  portrait, 
666;  biographical  note,  p.  519  n.; 
his  victory  at  Manila  Bay,  666; 
created  admiral,  p.  519  n. 

Dickinson,  John,  portrait,  131 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  97  n.  1;  author 
of  "Farmer's  Letters,"  131,  p.  97 
n.  2;  in  the  Constitutional  Conven 
tion,  246. 

Ding-ley  Tariff,  657. 

Dinwiddie,  royal  governor  of  Vir 


ginia,  106,  108;  sends  Washington 
to  the  West,  106. 

Dix,  John  A.,  441. 

Donelson,  Fort,  construction  of, 
461,  476;  capture  of,  477. 

Dorchester  Heights,  taking  of,  149. 

Dorr's  Rebellion,  373  (p.  292). 

Doug-las,  Stephen  A.,  portrait,  428; 
biographical  note,  p.  333  n.  1;  pro- 
slavery  sympathies,  400;  proposes 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  411 ;  advo 
cates  "  Popular  sovereignty,"  411 ; 
opposes  Lecompton  Constitution, 
425 ;  debates  with  Lincoln,  428-431 ; 
his  "Freeport  Doctrine,"  430,  433; 
nominated  for  the  Presidency,  435 ; 
supports  the  Union,  438,  453. 

Draft  riots,  526. 

Drake,  Francis,  English  explorer, 
portrait,  17;  biographical  note, 
p.  21  n.  1;  his  voyage  round  the 
world,  17. 

Dred  Scott  Decision,  418-420. 

Dunmore's  War,  Lord,  202. 

Duquesne,  Fort  (now  Pittsburg), 
founded,  108;  taken  by  Washing 
ton,  113. 

Dutch  in  America,  send  out  Hud 
son,  29;  settle  New  York,  29,  30; 
found  New  Amsterdam  (New  York 
City),  30;  troubles  of,  55,  61-64; 
lose  New  Netherlands,  64. 

Duties.    See  Tariff. 

Eads,  James  B.,  612. 

Early,  Gen.  J.  A.,  (C.),  menaces 
Washington,  D.C.,  533;  defeated 
by  Sheridan,  533,  550. 

Eaton,  Theophilus,  founder  of  New 
Haven,  51. 

Edmunds,  George  F.,  614. 

Education,  in  the  colonies,  82,  87; 
and  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  256; 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  708. 
See  Colleges. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  portrait,  103; 
biographical  note,  p.  77  u. ;  writ 
ings,  263. 

El  Caney,  battle  of,  667. 

Elections.  Presidential.  See  Presi 
dential  Campaigns. 


INDEX. 


33 


Electoral  College,  597. 

Electoral  Commission,  chooses 
Hayes,  599. 

Electoral  Count  Act,  622. 

Eliot,  John,  apostle  to  the  Indians, 
57. 

Emancipation,  advocated  in  Vir 
ginia  in  1829-1830,  359;  desired  by 
radical  Kepublicans,  501 ;  procla 
mation,  508. 

Embargo,  293,  294,  298. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  350. 

Endicott,  John,  leads  colonists  to 
Salem,  37. 

English,  William  H.,  607. 

English  discoveries  and  ex 
plorers,  8,  9,  17,  18. 

Era  of  good  feeling,  321. 

Ericson,  Leif.     See  Leif. 

Ericcson,  John,  portrait,  486  (p.  384) ; 
biographical  note,  p.  383  n. ;  invents 
the  Monitor,  486. 

Erie  Canal,  construction  of,  319. 

Eutaw  Springs,  battle  of,  228. 

Evarts,  William  M.,  436. 

Expansion  policy .  See  Imperialism. 

Exports,  of  the  Middle  Colonies,  85 ; 
of  the  South,  87,  455;  in  1901,  706. 

Fabian  policy,  192. 

Fair  Oaks  (or  Seven  Pines),  battle 
of,  495  ;  official  returns,  p.  392 
n.  1. 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  138. 

"Farmer's  Letters,"  131,  p.  97 
n.  2. 

Farragut,  Admiral  D.  G.,  portrait, 
488;  biographical  note,  p.  385  n. ;  at 
New  Orleans,  488,  489;  at  Mobile, 
540. 

Federal  Election  Bill,  defeated,  629. 

Federalist,  The,  254. 

Federalist  Party,  led  by  Hamilton, 
267 ;  in  election  of  1796,  275 ;  passes 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  277;  in 
election  of  1800,  281 ;  in  election  of 
1804,  288  ;  opposes  the  War  of  1812, 
300,  313-315 ;  decline  of,  315  (p.  242) . 

Fendall,  Josias,  leads  revolt  in 
Maryland,  41. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  6. 


Field,  Cyrus  W.,  portrait,  447;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  348  n. ;  and  the 
Atlantic  cable,  447,  p.  348  n. 

Fifteenth  Amendment,  583. 

"Fifty-four  Forty,"  376. 

Filibustering,  402,  p.  313 n. ;  407, 409. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  portrait,  396 
(p.  310) ;  biographical  note,  p.  310 
n. ;  elected  Vice  President,  389; 
succeeds  Taylor,  396. 

Finances,  in  1789,  261 ;  reformed  by 
Hamilton,  266,  267;  Under  Jeffer 
son,  285;  at  beginning  of  War  of 
1812,300;  under  Jackson,  361-366; 
during  Civil  War,  456-458, 529 ;  dur 
ing  Grant's  administration,  589; 
in  1893,  645-649 ;  reform  of,  677. 

First  Continental  Congress.  See 
Congress. 

Fisher,  Fort,  fall  of,  539. 

Fisheries,  importance  in  New  Eng 
land,  46,  81;  disputes  over,  312, 
586,  641. 

Five  Acts  of  1774,  136. 

Five  Forks,  battle  of,  550. 

Five  Nations,  3. 

Flag,  American,  first  raised,  p.  140 
u.  2. 

Fletcher,  Benjamin,  royal  governor 
of  New  York,  6<i. 

Florida,  discovery  of,  13;  taken  by 
the  English,  115;  Jackson  in,  324; 
acquired  by  the  United  States,  324 ; 
Seminole  War  in,  p.  289  n. ;  secedes, 
440;  readmitted,  574. 

Floyd,  JohnB.,  450. 

Foote,  Senator,  resolutions  on  sale 
of  public  lands,  355. 

Foote,  Rear  Admiral  A.  H.,  takes 
Fort  Henry,  477. 

Force  Bill,  of  1832,  358 ;  of  1870-1871, 
584 ;  name  given  the  Federal  Elec 
tion  Bill,  629. 

Fourteenth  Amendment,  571, 
572,  p.  454  n. 

Franchise.    See  Suffrage. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  portrait,  165 
(p.  125) ;  biographical  note,  p.  124 
n.;  his  efforts  for  union,  110;  signs 
Declaration  of  Independence,  164 
(p.  124) ;  commissioner  at  Paris. 


34 


INDEX. 


175 ;  in  the  Constitutional  Conven 
tion,  246 ;  his  writings,  263. 

Franklin,  battle  of,  536;  official  re 
turns,  p.  428  n.  2. 

Frayser's  Farm,  battle  of,  498. 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  506;  offi 
cial  returns,  p.  402  n. 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  p.  454  n. 

Freeman's  Farm,  battle  of,  181. 

Freeport  Doctrine,  430,  433. 

Free  Soil  Party,  in  election  of  1848, 
389. 

Fremont,  John  C.,  portrait,  417; 
biographical  note,  p.  324  n. ;  first 
Republican  nominee  for  the  Presi 
dency,  417 ;  in  command  in  Missouri, 
470 ;  succeeded  by  Halleck,  471 ;  in 
West  Virginia,  491;  defeated  by 
Stonewall  Jackson,  493. 

French  and  Indian  War,  110-115. 

French,  discoveries  and  claims,  9, 
p.  11  n.  2,  14-16,  19,  20,  98-100; 
wars  with,  101-116,  276;  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  175,  194,  197, 
230-232,  235;  in  Mexico,  561. 

Friends.    See  Quakers. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  English  ex 
plorer,  17. 

Frontenac,  Count,  terrorizes  the 
English  colonies,  101. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law,  first  enacted, 
327;  not  carried  out, '391;  in  the 
Compromise  of  1850,  398;  frus 
trated,  398,  p.  311  u. 

Fulton,  Robert,  portrait,  296;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  223 n.;  invents 
the  steamboat,  p.  223  n. 

Gadsden  Purchase,  p.  307  n. 

Gage,  Gen.  Thomas,  royal  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  140 ;  sends  troops 
to  Concord,  141;  recalled,  147 
(p.  110). 

Gaines's  Mill,  battle  of,  497. 

Gallatin,  Robert,  portrait,  283 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  213  n.  2 ;  in  Jeffer 
son's  cabinet,  284;  ambassador  to 
Russia,  308 ;  commissioner  at  Ghent, 
312. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  Portuguese  ex 
plorer,  9. 


Garfleld,  James  A.,  portrait,  608, 
biographical  note,  p.  478 n. ;  elected 
President,  607 ;  assassinated,  609. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  portrait, 
350;  biographical  note,  p.  269  n.  1; 
leader  of  the  abolitionists,  350; 
establishes  The  Liberator,  359. 

Gates,  Gen.  Horatio,  portrait,  193 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  147  n. ;  with 
Washington  in  New  Jersey,  169; 
loses  Ticonderoga,  178;  intrigues 
against  Washington,  169,  192,  193; 
supersedes  Schuyler,  180;  at  Sara 
toga,  181 ;  in  the  South,  214. 

Geary  Act,  p.  491  n. 

Genet,  Edmond  Charles,  French 
minister,  271 ;  seeks  to  involve  the 
United  States  in  war,  271. 

Georgia,  colonization  of,  97 ;  and  the 
Indians,  339,  354;  secedes,  440;  re 
admitted,  574. 

George  I.,  and  Governor  Spotswood, 
90  (p.  72). 

George  II.,  Georgia  named  for,  97. 

George  III.,  portrait,  p.  88;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  89  n.  2;  charac 
ter  of,  119;  abandons  American 
struggle,  234. 

Germans  in  America,  95,  97. 

Germantown,  battle  of,  187. 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  and  the  X.  Y.  Z. 
affair,  276. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  525;  official 
returns,  p.  418  n.  2. 

Ghent,  treaty  of,  312. 

Giddings,  Joshua  R.,  anti-slavery 
champion,  374. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  English 
explorer,  17. 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  speech  on 
the  Civil  War,  511. 

Gold,  discovered  in  California,  394. 
See  Currency. 

Goldsboro,  N.C.,  battle  of,  548. 

Gourges,  Dominic  de,  French  ex 
plorer,  15. 

Granges,  596. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  portrait,  p.  375; 
biographical  note,  p.  373  n. ;  takes 
Cairo,  476  (p.  374) ;  takes  Fort 
Donelson,  477;  complaints  against, 


INDEX. 


35 


477;  at  Shiloh,  478,  p.  378  n.  2;  at 
Vicksburg,  514-517;  at  Chatta 
nooga,  520,  521;  general  in  chief, 
522 ;  his  strategy,  530 ;  in  Virginia, 
531-533 ;  receives  surrender  of  Lee, 
551;  elected  President,  580;  re- 
elected,  588;  political  difficulties, 
590;  later  life,  p.  468  n. 

Grasse,  Commodore  de,  aids  in 
the  Yorktown  campaign,  231. 

Gray,  Robert,  discovers  the  Colum 
bia  River,  323. 

Great  Britain,  makes  peace  with 
America,  234,  235 ;  and  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  326;  and  the  Oregon 
question,  376,  586;  attitude  of,  in 
the  Civil  War,  464,  472,  473,  502, 
510,  511 ;  and  the  Venezuelan  dis 
pute,  651. 

Greeley,  Horace,  portrait,  588 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  462  n.;  editorial 
on  emancipation,  501 ;  opposes  Lin 
coln's  policy,  501,  542 ;  nominated 
for  the  Presidency,  588. 

Greenback  party,  596. 

Greene,  Gen.  Nathanael,  portrait, 
154;  biographical  note,  p.  115  n.  1; 
at  the  Brandywine,  186;  at  Ger- 
mantown,  187;  recommended  by 
Washington  for  command  in  the 
South,  214 ;  given  command  in  the 
South,  223;  recovers  the  South,  228. 

Greenland,  discovered  by  the  Scan 
dinavians,  4. 

Grenville,  Lord,  his  scheme  of  taxa 
tion,  125. 

Guam,  Caroline  Islands,  ceded  by 
Spain  to  the  United  States,  671; 
territorial  government  established, 
676. 

Guilford  Court  House,  battle  of, 
-  227. 

Habeas  Corpus,  Writ  of,  suspended 
by  Andros,  59;  in  Virginia,  95; 
secured  by  Ordinance  of  1787,  256 
(p.  190) ;  suspended  by  Lincoln,  512. 

Halleck,  Gen.  Henry  W.,  portrait, 
503;  biographical  note,  p.  398  n.  1 ; 
supersedes  Fremont  in  Missouri, 
471 ;  in  command  in  the  West,  476 ; 


complains  of  Grant,  477;  general 
in  chief,  503 ;  superseded  by  Grant, 
522. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  portrait,  246  ; 
biographical  note,  p.  182  n.;  at  York- 
town,  233;  in  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  246;  leader  of  the 
Federalists,  267 ;  opposed  to  Jeffer 
son,  268;  intrigues  for  Pinckney, 
275;  supports  Jefferson  for  the 
Presidency,  281;  duel  with  Burr, 
and  death;  289. 

Hamilton,  Colonel,  British  com 
mander  at  Detroit,  208 ;  surrenders 
to  George  Rogers  Clark,  209. 

Hancock,  John,  portrait,  141;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  103  n. ;  first 
president  of  the  Continental  Con 
gress,  192. 

Hancock,  Gen.  W.  S.,  portrait,  607; 
biographical  note,  p.  477  n. ;  nomi 
nated  for  the  Presidency,  607. 

Harper's  Ferry,  scene  of  John 
Brown's  raid,  432;  taken  by  Stone 
wall  Jackson,  505. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  portrait,  630 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  493  n.  1; 
elected  President,  628 ;  character  of 
his  administration,  629;  defeated 
by  Cleveland,  643. 

Harrison,  Gen.  "William  Henry, 
portrait,  371;  biographical  note, 
p.  290  n. ;  at  Tippecanoe,  299;  wins 
battle  of  the  Thames,  305;  can 
didate  for  the  Presidency  in  1836, 
368 ;  elected  President  in  1840,  371 ; 
death  of,  372. 

Hartford  Convention,  315. 

Harvard,  John,  founds  university 
at  Cambridge,  46. 

Harvey,  Sir  John,  royal  governor 
of  Virginia,  28,  p  29  n.  1. 

Haverhill,  Mass.,  sacked  by  French 
and  Indians,  101. 

Hawaii,  revolution  in,  650;  annexa 
tion  of,  672 ;  territorial  government 
established,  676. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  350  (p.  270) . 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  portrait,  598; 
biographical  note,  p.  469  n. ;  nomi 
nated  for  the  Presidency,  597 ;  dis- 


36 


INDEX. 


pute  over  election,  598;  character 
and  events  of  his  administration, 
600-605;  supports  Civil  Service 
reform,  p.  473  n. 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,  portrait,  355 
(p.  276) ;  biographical  note,  p.  276 
u. ;  debate  with  Webster,  355. 

Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  680. 

Helper,  H.  R.,  author  of  The  Impend 
ing  Crisis  of  the  South,  422. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  597,  619, 
p.  490  n. 

Henry,  Fort,  building  of,  461,  476; 
fall  of,  477. 

Henry,  Patrick,  portrait,  129;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  94  n.  2 ;  opposes 
Stamp  Act,  127 ;  opposes  the  Con 
stitutional  Convention,  246,  254. 

Herkimer,  Gen.  Nicholas,  at  Oris- 
kany,  182,  p.  140  n.  1. 

Hessians,  152,  169, 174,  179. 

Hobart,  Garret  A.,  655  (p.  513). 

Hobson,  Lieut.  R.  P.,  at  Santiago, 
668. 

Holy  Alliance,  325. 

Hood,  Gen.  J.  B.,  (C.),  portrait,  536; 
biographical  note,  p.  427  n.  3 ;  su 
persedes  Johnston,  535;  at  Nash 
ville,  536. 

Hooker,  Gen.  Joseph, (U.),  portrait, 
523;  biographical  note,  p.  414  n.  2; 
atWilliamsburg,  492 ;  at  Fredericks- 
burg,  506 ;  succeeds  Burnside,  506 ; 
at  Chattanooga,  519-521 ;  at  Chan 
cellors  ville,  523;  superseded  by 
Meade,  524. 

Hooker,  Rev.  Thomas,  framer  of 
the  Connecticut  Constitution,  51; 
his  writings,  84. 

Horseshoe,  battle  of  the,  307. 

Houston,  Gen.  Samuel,  portrait, 
374;  biographical  note,  p.  293  n. ; 
Texan  leader,  374. 

Howe,  Admiral  Lord,  reenforces 
General  Howe,  153;  at  Newport, 
197. 

Howe,  Elias,  449. 

Howe,  Gen.  William,  portrait,  147 
(p.  110) ;  biographical  note, 
p.  110  n.;  at  Bunker  Hill,  147;  in 
command  of  British  forces,  147; 


evacuates  Boston,  150;  in  New 
York,  154;  in  New  Jersey,  168, 
169;  fails  to  support  Burgoyne, 
183;  moves  on  Philadelphia,  185- 
187;  succeeded  by  Clinton,  195. 

Hudson,  Henry,  portrait,  29;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  29  n.  2;  discovers 
Hudson  River,  29. 

Huguenots,  persecuted,  in  France, 
15;  found  colony  in  Florida,  15; 
their  colony  destroyed,  15;  in  New 
Netherlands,  62;  in  North  Caro 
lina,  76. 

Hull,  Captain  Isaac,  portrait,  304; 
biographical  note,  p.  230  n.  2;  his 
victory  over  the  Guerriere,  304. 

Hull,  Gen.  William,  surrenders  De 
troit,  302. 

Hutchinson,  Mrs.  Anne,  48. 

Hutchinson,  Governor,  portrait, 
132;  biographical  note,  p.  98  n. ; 
withdraws  troops  from  Boston,  132. 

Iberville.    See  Le  Moyne. 

Illinois,  admitted,  329. 

Immigration,  to  West,  346 ;  Chinese, 
603,  624,  p.  491  n. ;  1830-1900,  704. 

Impeachment,  of  Justice  Chase,  291 ; 
of  President  Johnson,  579;  of  Bel- 
knap,  590. 

Imperialism,  opposition  to,  675. 

Impressment,  of  American  sailors, 
272,292,312  (p.  240). 

Income  tax,  exacted  in  Civil  War, 
457;  defeated,  649. 

Independent  Treasury  system, 
established,  369. 

Indians,  early  tribes,  1-3;  origin  of 
name,  2, 7;  in  New  York,  98;  allied 
with  French,  101-114;  reservations 
of,  116,  p.  274  n.,  p.  289  n. ;  during 
the  Revolution,  182,  202-207  ;  de 
feated  by  Wayne,  270;  in  War  of 
1812,  302,  305. 

Indian  Territory,  transfer  of  tribes 
to,  p.  274  n. 

Industrial  disturbances.  See 
Strikes. 

Industries,  growth  of,  during  War 
of  1812,  316;  during  Civil  War,  454, 
529;  in  the  South,  617;  suspended 


INDEX. 


37 


during  panic  of  1893,  645;  magni 
tude  of,  in  the  United  States,  702. 

Internal  improvements,  by  the 
States,  317,  318,  364;  Calhoun's 
attitude  toward,  318,  338;  Madi 
son's  attitude  toward,  318 ;  favored 
by  John  Quincy  Adams,  338;  lib 
erality  of  the  Fifty-first  Congress 
toward,  637. 

Internal  revenue.     See  Revenue. 

International  Copyright  Law, 
passed,  643. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  623. 

Inventions,  449,  709. 

Iroquois  Indians,  3. 

Irving',  Washing-ton,  350  (p.  270). 

Italy,  difficulty  with,  639. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  portrait,  311; 
biographical  note,  p.  238  n. ;  at 
battle  of  the  Horseshoe,  307;  at 
New  Orleans,  311 ;  invades  Florida, 
324,  p.  248  n.  2;  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  in  1824,  333;  elected 
President  in  1828,  342;  character 
of  his  epoch,  343-350;  his  charac 
ter,  353;  and  the  nullification  epi 
sode,  358;  and  the  Bank,  361-366; 
issues  "Specie  Circular,"  366;  his 
policy  toward  France,  367. 

Jackson,  Gen.  Thomas  J.  ("  Stone 
wall"),  portrait,  493;  biographical 
note,  p.  390  n. ;  exploits  in  Virginia, 
493;  killed  at  Chancellorsville,  523. 

James  I.,  encourages  colonization,  21 ; 
charters  Virginia  Company,  26. 

Jamestown,  Va.,  settled  and  named, 
23 ;  saved  by  Capt.  John  Smith,  24. 

Japan,  opened  to  commerce,  410. 

Jay,  John,  portrait,  272;  biographi 
cal  note,  p.  201  n. ;  negotiates  treaty 
with  England,  272. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  portrait,  164  (p. 
123) ;  biographical  note,  p.  123  n. ; 
•  drafts  Declaration  of  Independence, 
164;  his  views  on  the  Constitution, 
253 ;  leader  of  Democratic-Republi 
cans,  268 ;  Vice  President,  275 ; 
author  of  "  Kentucky  Resolutions," 
279;  elected  President,  281;  first 
inaugural  address,  284,  p.  213  n.  1; 


his  character  and  policy,  268,  282. 
296,  297;  compared  with  Jackson, 
344. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  portrait,  564; 
biographical  note,  p.  446  n. ;  mili 
tary  governor  of  Tennessee,  477; 
elected  Vice  President,  543;  be 
comes  President,  562 ;  his  policy  of 
reconstruction,  564,  566,  567;  and 
Congress,  567,  577-580;  impeach 
ment  of,  579. 

Johnson,  Sir  John,  182,  204. 

Johnston,  Gen.  A.  S.,  (C.),  portrait, 
478;  b-iographical  note,  p.  377  n.; 
in  Utah,  427;  in  Kentucky,  476; 
killed  at  Shiloh,  478. 

Johnston,  Gen.  J.  E.,  (C.),  portrait, 
492;  biographical  note,  p.  388  n.; 
evacuates  Yorktown,  492 ;  at  Vicks- 
burg,  517;  and  Sherman,  534;  su 
perseded  by  Hood,  535;  reinstated, 
548;  surrender  of,  55L 

Joliet,  Louis,  French  explorer,  98. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  portrait,  211; 
biographical  note,  p.  159  n.;  de 
feats  the  Serapis,  211 ;  effects  of  the 
victory,  212. 

Kansas,   struggle  in,  413,  414,  424, 

425;  admission  of,  425. 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  411. 
Kaskaskia,  taken  by  George  Rogers 

Clark,  209. 
Kear surge  and  Alabama,  battle  of, 

541. 
Kentucky,   settled,    200;    admitted, 

p.  192  n. ;  in  Civil  War,  463,  481. 
Kentucky  Resolutions,  279. 
Kieft,  governor  of  New  Netherlands, 

61. 

King,  Rufus,  288. 
King1  George's  War,  105. 
King-  Philip's  War,  57. 
King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  224. 
King  William's  War,  101. 
Kitchen  Cabinet,  352. 
Know-Nothing  (or  American)  party, 

406. 
Kossuth,  Louis,  Hungarian  patriot 

403. 
Ku-Klux-Klan,  576,  584. 


INDEX. 


Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  portrait, 
175 ;  biographical  note,  p.  133  n. ; 
joins  American  army,  175;  in  the 
South,  229,  232 ;  makes  tour  of  the 
United  States,  p.  256  n. 

La  Salle,  Robert  de,  portrait,  99; 
biographical  note,  p.  74  n. ;  ex 
plores  the  Mississippi,  99. 

Laud,  Archbishop,  persecutes  the 
Puritans,  38;  passes  laws  against 
Massachusetts,  47. 

Laudonniere,  Rene"  de,  French  ex 
plorer,  founds  colony  in  Florida,  15. 

Lawrence,  Capt.  James,  portrait, 
305 ;  biographical  note,  p.  233  n.  1 ; 
defeated  by  the  Shannon,  304  (p. 
233). 

Lecompton  Constitution,  424,  425. 

Lee,  Fort,  capture  of,  158. 

Lee,  Gen.  Charles,  his  disobedience 
and  capture,  167 ;  his  treachery, 
183,  184;  at  Monmouth,  196;  dis 
missed,  196. 

Lee,  Gen.  Robert  E.,  (C.),  portrait, 
496;  biographical  note,  p.  392  n.  2; 
in  western  Virginia,  466 ;  given  com 
mand  of  Confederate  forces,  496;  in 
the  Seven  Days'  Battles,  497, 498 ;  at 
Antietam,  505 ,  at  Gettysburg,  525 ; 
and  Grant  in  Virginia,  530-533; 
surrender  of,  551. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  portrait,  164 
(p.  122) ;  biographical  note,  p. 
122  n.  ;  offers  resolutions  of  inde 
pendence,  164. 

Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  discovers 
America,  4;  in  Iceland  and  Green 
land,  4. 

Leisler's  Insurrection,  66. 

Le  Moyne,  Jean  Baptiste  (Sieur 
de  Bienville),  portrait,  106;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  79  n. ;  founder 
of  New  Orleans,  104. 

Le  Moyne,  Pierre  (Sieur  d'lber- 
ville),  establishes  French  settle 
ment  in  Mississippi,  104. 

Leon,  Ponce  de,  Spanish  discoverer, 
portrait,  13;  biographical  note, 
p.  16  n. ;  discovers  Florida,  13. 

Lewis  and  Clark,  explore  the  North 
west,  287  323. 


Lewis,  William  B.,  352. 

Lexington,  battle  of,  143. 

Liberal  Republicans,  588. 

Liberty  party,  in  campaign  of  1844, 
375 ;  in  election  of  1848,  389. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  portrait,  p.  352 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  333  n.  2;  in 
Congress,  379 ;  debates  with  Doug 
las,  428-431;  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  436;  elected,  439;  his 
views  on  slavery,  445,  501 ;  his  Cab 
inet,  441,  443;  first  call  for  troops, 
453;  strategic  plans,  469;  circular 
letter,  499;  reply  to  Greeley,  p.  396 
n. ;  his  firmness  toward  Great 
Britain,  511;  opposition  to,  542; 
reflected,  544;  changes  in  Cabinet, 
545 ;  his  efforts  for  peace,  547 ;  policy 
toward  the  South,  554,  563;  assas 
sination  of,  552. 

Literature,  American,  in  the  17th 
century,  84;  in  the  19th  century, 
350,  708. 

Livingston,  R.  R.,  negotiates  pur 
chase  of  Louisiana,  286. 

Locke's  Constitutions,  75. 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  629. 

Logan,  Gen.  John  A.,  619. 

London  Company,  formed,  22; 
founds  Jamestown,  23. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  350. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  155. 

Longstreet,  Gen.  James,  (C.),  por- 
trait,525(p  417);  biographical  note, 
p.  417  n. ;  in  the  Peninsula  cam 
paign,  496,  497;  at  Bull  Run,  504; 
at  Chickamauga,  518;  at  Gettys 
burg,  525. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  521. 

Lopez,  Narciso,  filibuster,  402,  p. 
313  n. 

Louisburg,  erected,  104  ;  captured 
and  restored,  105 ;  surrender  of,  118. 

Louisiana,  early  history  of,  286; 
purchase  of,  286,  287 ;  map  of  pur 
chase,  287  (p.  217) ;  western  boun 
dary  fixed,  324;  secedes,  440;  re 
admitted,  574. 

Lovejoy,  E.  P.,  abolitionist  martyr, 
360. 

Low,  Seth,  687. 


INDEX. 


39 


Lowell,  James  Russell,  350. 
Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  309. 
Lyon,  Gen.  Nathaniel,  portrait, 

470;   biographical  note,  p.  368  n.; 

in  Missouri,  470. 

Macdonough,  Commodore  Thos., 
portrait,  309 ;  his  victory  on  Lake 
Champlain,  309. 

Macon's  Bill,  No.  2,  298. 

Madison,  James,  portrait,  247 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  183  n. ;  in  the 
Constitutional  Convention,  247 ;  in 
first  United  States  Congress,  266; 
author  of  Virginia  Resolutions, 
279;  in  Jefferson's  Cabinet,  284; 
becomes  President,  298;  declares 
war  against  Great  Britain,  299; 
vetoes  internal  improvements  bill, 
318,  319;  and  West  Florida,  324. 

Magellan  (da  Magalhaens),  Fer 
nando,  Portuguese  explorer,  por 
trait,  12;  biographical  note,  p.  15n.; 
voyage  of,  12. 

Maine,  battleship,  destruction  of,  661. 

Maine,  failure  of  first  settlement,  23 ; 
joined  to  Massachusetts,  52,  58,  60 ; 
in  1700,  77;  admitted,  329;  prohibi 
tion  law,  p.  314  n. 

Malvern  Hill,  battle  of,  498. 

Manassas  (or  Bull  Run),  first  battle 
of,  467 ;  second  battle  of,  504. 

Manila  Bay,  battle  of,  666. 

Manufacturing,  in  the  colonies,  81 ; 
after  War  of  1812,  316;  from  1870 
to  1900,  706. 

Marcy,  William  L.,  408. 

Marion,  Gen.  Francis,  214,  223. 

Marquette,  Pere,  French  mission 
ary,  98. 

Marshall,  James  W.,  discovers  gold 
in  California,  394. 

Marshall,  John,  portrait,  284;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  214  n.  1;  envoy 
to  France,  276;  Secretary  of  State, 
280;  Chief  Justice,  284;  conducts 
Burr  trial,  290 ;  delivers  celebrated 
opinions,  327 ;  opposed  by  Jackson, 
353. 

Maryland,  settlement  of,  39,  40; 
charter  granted  to  First  Lord  Bal 


timore,  39;  rule  of  the  Calverts, 
39,  40;  becomes  a  royal  province, 
41 ;  in  1700,  77 ;  in  Civil  War,  462, 
463. 

Mason,  Capt.  John,  defeats  Indians 
in  Connecticut,  50 ;  plants  colonies 
in  New  Hampshire,  52. 

Mason,  James  M.,  Confederate  com 
missioner,  472. 

Mason  and  Dixon  Line,  93. 

Massachusetts,  settled  by  Puri 
tans,  37,  38 ;  charters  of,  37,  47, 
58,  60,  136;  legislature  formed,  46; 
troubles  with  the  Crown,  47;  in 
ternal  troubles,  48;  and  the  New 
England  Confederacy,  53-56 ;  under 
Andros,  59;  in  1700,  77;  resists 
taxation,  127-139;  in  the  Revolu 
tion,  140-150;  in  1800,  260;  in  the 
War  of  1812,  300,  313-315;  in  Civil 
War,  462. 

Massachusetts  Bill,  136. 

Massasoit,  57. 

Mather,  Cotton,  portrait,  83;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  63  n.;  and  the 
witchcraft  delusion,  83;  his  writ 
ings,  84. 

Mather,  Increase,  84. 

Maximilian,  in  Mexico,  561. 

McAllister,  Fort,  taken,  538. 

McClellan,  Gen.  George  B.,  (U.)» 
portrait,  490;  biographical  note, 
p.  387  n.;  early  successes,  466; 
general  in  chief,  467,  477,  490 ;  au 
thority  limited,  490;  Peninsula 
Campaign,  492-498;  restored  to 
command,  505;  superseded  by 
Burnside,  505;  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  543. 

McDowell,  Gen.  Irvin,  at  Bull 
Run,  467;  protects  city  of  Wash 
ington,  492,  493. 

McKinley,  William,  portrait,  658; 
biographical  note,  p.  512  n.  1; 
frames  tariff,  630;  elected  Presi 
dent,  655;  character  of  adminis 
tration,  656;  efforts  in  behalf  of 
Cuba,  663;  proclaims  war  with 
Spain,  663;  reflected,  679;  assassi 
nation  of,  683. 

McKinley  Tariff,  630. 


40 


INDEX. 


Meade,  Gen.  George  G.,  (U.),  por 
trait,  524 ;  biographical  note,  p.  416 
n.  1 ;  succeeds  Hooker,  524 ;  at  Get 
tysburg,  525;  commands  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  530. 

Memphis,  taking  of,  479. 

Menendez,  Spanish  explorer,  founds 
St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  15. 

Merrimac,  Confederate  ironclad,  485, 
486. 

Mexican  War,  377-387 ;  political  re 
sults,  379. 

Mexico,  her  claims  on  Texas,  377; 
relinquishes  claim  to  Mexico  and 
California,  387;  the  French  in,  561. 

Mexico,  city  of,  captured,  385. 

Miles,  Gen.  Nelson  A.,  portrait, 
670;  biographical  note,  p.  523  11.; 
in  Porto  Rico,  670. 

Mills  Bill,  627. 

Mims,  Fort,  massacre,  307. 

Minnesota,  admitted,  p.  332  n. 

Minuit,  Peter,  governor  of  New 
Netherlands,  30 ;  founds  settlement 
for  Swedes,  63. 

Minutemen,  140;  at  Lexington  and 
Concord,  143. 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of,  521. 

Mississippi,  settlement  of,  104,  259; 
secedes,  440;  readmitted,  574. 

Mississippi  River,  discovery  of,  13 ; 
explored  by  La  Salle,  99;  naviga 
tion  of,  258,  286 ;  in  Civil  War,  479, 
488,  517. 

Missouri,  admission  of,  328-331;  in 
the  Civil  War,  470,  471. 

Missouri  Compromise,  first,  329; 
second,  330 ;  results  of,  381 ;  and 
California,  393;  and  the  Dred  Scott 
Decision,  418. 

Mobile,  taking  of,  .540. 

Modoc  Indians,  593. 

Molino  del  Rey,  battle  of,  385. 

Money.     See  Currency. 

Monitor  and  Merrimac,  battle  of,  486. 

Monmouth,  battle  of,  196. 

Monocacy,  battle  of,  533. 

Monroe,  James,  portrait,  321 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  245  n. ;  envoy  to 
France,  286;  Secretary  of  War, 
311;  President,  319;  character  of 


his  administration,  321 ;  his  famous 

"Doctrine,"  325,  326. 
Monroe  Doctrine,  promulgated,  326 ; 

extended  by  Cleveland,  651. 
Montcalm,   Marquis  de,   portrait, 

113;  biographical  note,  p.  82  n.  2; 

defeated  at  Quebec,  114. 
Monterey,  Mexico,  taken  by  Taylor, 

381. 

Montgomery,  General,  takes  Mont 
real,  151. 
Morgan,  Gen.  Daniel,  portrait,  226 ; 

biographical  note,  p.  169  n.;  defeated 

at  Montreal,   151;    in  the    South, 

223;  at  battle  of  Cowpens,  225;  his 

race  with  Cornwallis,  226. 
Mormons,  426,  614. 
Morrill  Grant,  500. 
Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  perfects  the 

telegraph,  449. 
Morton,  Levi  P.,  628. 
Morton,  Thomas,  of  Merrymount,  35. 
Moultrie,  Gen.  William,  portrait, 

162 ;   biographical  note,  p.  120  n. ; 

defeats  Clinton  at  Charleston,  S.C., 

162. 

"  Mugwumps,"  618. 
Murfreesborough  (or  Stone  River), 

battle  of,  482. 

Napoleon  I.,  agrees  to  sell  Louisiana, 
286,  287 ;  Berlin  Decree,  292 ;  Milan 
Decree,  292;  accepts  Macou's  Bill, 
298. 

Narvaez,  Panfilo  de,  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  13. 

Nashville,  battle  of,  536;  official 
returns,  p.  429  n. 

National  debt.    See  Debt. 

Navigation  Acts,  in  Virginia,  43; 
extended,  117. 

Navy,  in  Revolutionary  War,  210 ;  re 
duced  by  Jefferson,  285 ;  weakness 
of,  in  1812, 304,  p.  230  n.  1 ;  substitu 
tion  of  ironclads,  484-486 ;  increase 
of,  under  Arthur,  610;  work  in 
Spanish  War,  666,  668,  669. 

Negroes,  first  brought  to  America, 
27;  legislation  for,  584;  condition 
of,  696,  705. 

Nevada,  admitted,  546. 


INDEX. 


41 


New  Amsterdam  (New  York  City), 
founded,  30;  taken  by  English,  64. 

New  England,  confederation  of,  53- 
56;  in  1700,  77-84;  in  War  of  1812, 
313-315;  and  the  tariff  of  1828,340; 
and  the  anti-slavery  movement, 
350,  398;  opposes  sale  of  Western 
lands,  355. 

Newfoundland,  early  settlement  in, 
9,  14,  17. 

New  France,  98.  p.  73  n.  2. 

New  Hampshire,  colonies  in,  52; 
incorporated  with  Massachusetts, 
52,  p.  45  n. ;  becomes  a  royal  prov 
ince,  58;  separated  from  Massa 
chusetts,  60;  in  1700,  77. 

New  Jersey,  settlement  of,  67;  sold 
to  Quakers,  68;  disturbances  in, 
68 ;  becomes  a  royal  colony,  68 ;  in 
1700,  77. 

New  Mexico,  ceded  by  Mexico,  387 ; 
and  the  Gadsden  purchase,  p.  307  n. 

New  Netherland,  settled  by  Dutch, 
29,  30;  disturbances  in,  55,  61,  62; 
Council  established,  62;  taken  by 
English,  64;  named  New  York,  64. 
See  New  York. 

New  Orleans,  battle  of,  311 ;  capture 
of,  488 ;  Butler  in,  489. 

Newport,  R.I.,  archaeological  re 
mains  at,  p.  6  n.  1;  founded,  49; 
attack  on,  197. 

New  York,  settlement  of,  29,  30; 
naming  of,  64 ;  early  English  gov 
ernment,  65 ;  in  1700,  77. 

New  York  City,  population  of,  262, 
347,  447,  690;  capital  of  the  United 
States,  p.  196  n. ;  draft  riots  in,  526 ; 
corruption  in,  406,  592,  654,  687. 

Nicolls,  Colonel,  royal  governor  of 
•New  York,  64. 

Nominating-  conventions.  See 
Conventions. 

Non-intercourse  Act,  293. 

North,  Lord,  English  Prime  Minister, 
137. 

North  Carolina,  colonized  by  Ra 
leigh,  18;  settled,  72-76;  troubles 
with  governors,  76;  in  1700,  77: 
surrenders  charter,  92;  secedes, 
453 ;  readmitted,  574. 


Northmen,  first  discoverers  of  Amer« 
ica,  4. 

Northwest  Territory,  ordinance  foi 
governing,  256. 

Nova  Scotia,  early  settlements  in, 
16 ;  in  French  wars,  104. 

Nullification,  in  the  Kentucky  Reso 
lutions,  279 ;  theory  expounded  by 
Calhoun,  341 ;  doctrine  advanced 
by  Hayne,  355  (p.  276) ;  opposed  by 
Jackson,  357 ;  ordinance  passed  by 
South  Carolina,  358;  repealed,  358. 

Oglethorpe,  James,  portrait,  97; 
biographical  note,  p.  72  n.  2;  settles 
Georgia,  97. 

Ohio,  the  French  in,  106;  admitted, 
p.  192  n. 

Oklahoma  Territory,  opened  to 
settlement,  631. 

Olney,  Richard,  651. 

Orders  in  Council,  293;  revoked, 
301. 

Oregon,  controversy  over,  323,  376; 
admitted,  p.  332  n. 

Oregon,  battleship,  p.  521  n.  2. 

Orinoco  River,  discovered  by  Colum 
bus,  7. 

Oriskany,  battle  of,  182 

Ostend  Manifesto,  408. 

Otis,  James,  portrait,  128 ;  biographi 
cal  note,  p.  94  n.  1 ;  on  disunion 
in  the  colonies,  120;  opposes  the 
Stamp  Act,  127. 

Pacific    Ocean,    discovery    of,    11; 

named  11. 
Palma,     Thomas     Estrada,     first 

President  of  Cuba,  695. 
Palmer,  Gen.  John  M.,  655  (p.  513). 
Palmerston,  Lord,  473,  510. 
Palo  Alto,  battle  of,  380. 
Panama  Congress,  337. 
Pan-American  Congress,  632;  ex 
position,  682. 
Panics,  financial,  of  1817,  p.  243  n.; 

of  1837,  369 ;  of  1873,  589 ;  of  1893, 

645. 
Parker,  Theodore,  portrait,  p.  270; 

biographical  note,  p.  269  n.  2;  aboli« 

tion  orator,  421. 


42 


INDEX. 


Parliament,  interferes  in  Maryland, 
40;  in  Virginia,  42;  power  of,  124, 
125,  128. 

Parties,  political,  beginnings  of,  ,345. 
See  under  the  names  of  the  parties. 

Patroons,  estates  of,  30;  difficulties 
with,  62 ;  form  an  aristocracy,  78, 
85. 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  480. 

Pemberton,  Gen.  J.  C.,  (C.),  at 
Vicksburg,  517. 

Pendleton  Bill,  616. 

Peninsula  Campaign,  492-498. 

Penii,  William,  portrait,  68;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  55  n. ;  acquires 
lands  in  New  Jersey,  68;  secures 
grant  from  Charles  II.,  69;  founds 
Philadelphia,  69. 

Pensions,  Cleveland's  attitude  to 
ward,  626;  Dependent  Pension  Bill, 
626,  636. 

People's  Party.    See  Populist. 

Pequot  War,  50. 

Persecution,  in  Massachusetts,  48, 
56 ;  of  witches,  83. 

Perry,  Commodore  M.  C.,  secures 
treaty  with  Japan,  410. 

Perry,  Captain  Oliver  H.,  portrait, 
305  (p.  234)  ;  biographical  note,  p. 
233  n.  2;  his  victory  on  Lake  Erie, 
305. 

Petersburg-,  attack  on,  532. 

Philadelphia,  founded,  69;  taken  by 
the  British,  185 ;  population  in  1800, 
262;  temporary  capital  of  the  United 
States,  p.  196  n.  1. 

Philippine  Islands,  purchased  by  the 
United  States,  671;  revolution  in, 
673;  687. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  portrait,  360; 
biographical  note,  p.  282  n.;  aboli 
tion  orator,  360,  421. 

Phips,  Sir  William,  101. 

Pickering,  Timothy,  280. 

Pickett,  Gen.  George  B.,  portrait, 
525  (p.  418) ;  biographical  note,  p. 
418  n. ;  at  Gettysburg,  525. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  portrait,  404;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  315  n.;  elected 
President,  404;  favors  the  South, 
405. 


Pilgrims,  persecuted  in  England,  32, 
flee  to  Holland,  32 ;  settle  at  Plym 
outh,  33-35. 

Pinckney,  Charles  C.,  portrait,  276; 
biographical  note,  p.  206  n. ;  envoy 
to  France,  276 ;  candidate  for  Vice 
Presidency,  281;  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  288. 

Pinckney,  Thomas,  275. 

Pinkney,  William,  292. 

Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham,  por 
trait,  114 ;  biographical  note,  p.  83 
n. ;  his  policy  during  French  and 
Indian  War,  110,  113,  114';  opposes 
taxing  the  colonies,  137. 

Pitt,  William,  the  Younger,  portrait, 
292 ;  and  the  "  Rule  of  1756,"  292. 

Pittsburg  Landing  (or  Shiloh), 
battle  of,  478;  official  returns,  p. 
378  n.  1. 

Pizarro,  Francesco,  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  2,  13. 

Plattsburg,  battle  of,  309. 

Plymouth,  founded  by  Pilgrims,  34; 
incorporated  with  Massachusetts,60. 

Plymouth  Company,  formed,  22; 
failure  of  Maine  Colony,  23;  issues 
patent  to  Pilgrims,  35 ;  issues  patent 
to  Puritans,  37 ;  breaking  up  of,  47. 

Pocahontas,  portrait,  25;  biographi 
cal  note,  p.  27  n. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  350  (p.  270),  449. 

Political  Parties.    See  Parties. 

Polk,  James  K.,  portrait,  378;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  294  n.;  elected 
President,  375;  declares  war  on 
Mexico,  377;  character  of  his  ad 
ministration,  378. 

Polygamy,  426,  614,  681. 

Pontiac,  conspiracy  of,  116. 

Pope,  Gen.  John,  portrait,  504;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  398  n.  2;  com 
mands  army  of  Virginia,  503;  at 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  504. 

Popular  Sovereignty.  See  Squatter 
Sovereignty, 

Population,  in  1700,  77;  rapid  in 
crease  of,  91 ;  in  1789  and  1800,  257; 
movement  of,  259,  346,  581 ;  in  1830, 
346 ;  of  the  West  in  1870,  581 ;  from 
1870  to  1900,  703, 


INDEX. 


43 


Populist  for  People's)  party,  rise  of, 
642;  platform  of,  642;  in  election 
of  1896,  655  (p.  513). 

Porter,  Admiral,  at  Vicksburg, 
517. 

Porter,  Gen.  Fitz  John,  at  Gaines's 
Mill,  497 ,  at  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  504,  p.  399  n. 

Port  Hudson,  fall  of,  517. 

Porto  Rico,  taken  by  the  United 
States,  670;  ceded  by  Spain,  671. 

Port  Republic,  battle  of,  493. 

Port  Royal,  taken  by  the  English, 
101. 

Portuguese,  explorations  and  dis 
coveries,  6,  9. 

Powhatan,  25. 

President  of  the  United  States, 
powers  of,  252 ;  method  of  election, 
275,  281. 

Presidential  election,  of  1789,  255 ; 
of  1796,  275 ;  of  1800,  281 ;  of  1804, 
288;  of  1824,  333;  of  1828,  342;  of 
1840,  371;  of  1844,  375;  of  1848, 
389;  of  1852,  404;  of  1856,  417;  of 
1860,  435-439;  of  1864,  542-544;  of 
1868, 580 ;  of  1872,  588 ;  of  1876,  597 ; 
of  1880,  607;  of  1884,  618,  619;  of 
1888, 628;  of  1892,  642,  643;  of  1896, 
655 ;  of  1900,  678. 

Presidential  Succession  Act,  622. 

Presidents  and  Vice  Presidents, 
list  of,  Appendix  C  (p.  563) . 

Press,  freedom  of,  278. 

Princeton,  battle  of,  172. 

Privateers,  fitted  out  by  Genet,  271. 

Proctor,  Colonel  H.  A.,  305. 

Providence,  R.I.,  founded,  49. 

Provincial  Congress.  See  Congress. 

Public  lands,  ceded  by  the  states, 
-241 ;  Foote's  resolutions  on  sales  of, 
355;  sale  affected  by  "Specie  Cir 
cular,"  366. 

Pueblo  Indians,  2,  13. 

Putnam,  Gen.  Israel,  biographical 
note,  p.  115  n.  2 ;  at  battle  of  Long 
Island,  154,  155;  at  Saratoga,  181. 

Quakers,  in  Maryland,  40;  in  Massa 
chusetts,  55;  acquire  New  Jersey, 
68;  settle  Pennsylvania,  69. 


Quebec,    founded,    16;    expeditions 

against,  102;  fall  of ,  114. 
Quebec  Act,  136. 
Queen  Anne's  War,  102. 
Queenstown  Heights,  battle  of,  303. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  313. 
Quo  warranto,  writs  of,  68. 

Railroads,  402,  448,  581,  589,  623, 653, 
693. 

Raisin  River,  battle  of,  p.  234  n. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  portrait,  18; 
biographical  note,  p.  21  n.  2;  his 
expeditions  and  colonies,  18. 

Randolph,  John,  portrait,  331;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  253  n. ;  in  Chase 
trial,  291;  opposes  Tariff  of  1816, 
316;  attacks  Jackson  and  Clay, 
p.  257  n. 

Ratification,  of  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation,  241;  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  254. 

Reciprocity,  McKinley's  attitude 
toward,  683;  with  Cuba,  687. 

Reconstruction,  various  policies  of, 
563-573;  effects  of,  574-576;  policy 
of  Congress  discredited,  597,  601. 

Reed,  Thomas  B.,  modifies  rules  of 
the  House,  633. 

Reid,  Whitelaw,  643. 

Religion,  in  the  colonies,  32-34,  38, 
39,  40,  48,  49,  51,  54 ;  and  the  Ordi 
nance  of  1787,  256  (p.  190). 

Representation,  demanded  by  the 
colonies,  123;  of  slaves,  249. 

Representative  government,  first 
in  America,  27 ;  the  colonies,  36, 38, 
46,  53. 

Republican  party,  formation  of, 
416;  platform  of,  416;  in  campaign 
of  1856 ;  417 ;  in  campaign  of  1860, 
436-439;  in  the  Civil  War,  501,  513. 
542;  controls  reconstruction,  570- 
573;  elects  Grant,  580;  division  of, 
in  1872,  588;  factions  in,  608;  elects 
Harrison,  628 ;  in  campaign  of  1896, 
655. 

Republicans,  National,  p.  284  n.  1. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  battle  of,  380. 

Resumption  of  specie  payments, 
605. 


INDEX. 


Returning  boards,  598,  599. 

Revenue,  system  established  in  colo 
nies,  117 ;  internal  revenue,  266,  273, 
285,  627;  in  Civil  War,  457,  458. 

Revere,  Paul,  142. 

Revolution,  American,  causes  of, 
117-139 ;  the  war,  140-237. 

"Revolution  of  18O1,"  283. 

Rhode  Island,  founded,  49;  charter 
of,  49,  59,  60 ;  in  1700,  77 ;  opposes 
the  Constitution,  245,  254. 

Ribaut,  Jean,  French  explorer, 
founds  Huguenot  colony  in  Florida, 
15. 

Richmond,  Va.,  Confederate  capital, 
453. 

Right  of  Search,  292,  312,  472. 

Riots,  draft,  526.     See  Strikes. 

Robertson,  James,  Tennessee  pio 
neer,  200. 

Robinson,  John,  pastor  of  the  Pil 
grims,  32. 

Rochambeau,  Count,  217,  230. 

Rockingham,  Lord,  protests  against 
"Five  Acts,"  137;  conducts  peace 
negotiations,  234. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  portrait,  678 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  529  u. ;  at  San 
tiago,  667 ;  his  public  services,  678 ; 
elected  Vice  President,  679;  be 
comes  President,  683;  administra 
tion  of,  684. 

Rosecrans,  Gen.  W.  S.,  (U.),  por 
trait,  482;  biographical  note, 
p.  380  n.;  at  Stone  River,  482;  in 
Chattanooga  campaign,  518,  519; 
superseded  by  Grant,  520. 

Rush,  Richard,  and  the  Monroe  Doc 
trine,  325. 

Russell,  Lord  John,  502,  510,  511. 

Russia,  in  the  Northwest,  325;  sells 
Alaska,  p.  502  n. 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  founded,  15. 

St.  Glair,  Gen.  Arthur,  defeated  by 
the  Indians,  269. 

St.  John's  River,  Fla.,  settlements 
on,  15. 

St.  Leger,  Colonel,  plan  of  expedi 
tion,  177 ;  his  defeat,  182. 

11  Salary  Grab,"  591. 


Salem,  Mass.,  founded,  37;  the 
witchcraft  delusion,  83. 

Salmon  Falls,  N.H.,  burned  by 
Indians,  101. 

Sampson,  Admiral  William  T., 
portrait,  668;  biographical  note, 
p.  521  n.  1;  at  Santiago,  667- 
669;  controversy  with  Schley, 
686. 

San  Antonio,  battle  of,  384. 

San  Domingo  question,  582. 

San  Juan  Hill,  battle  of,  667. 

Santa  Anna,  Mexican  general,  de 
feated  by  Houston,  374;  outwits 
Polk,  378;  at  Buena  Vista,  383;  at 
Cerro  Gordo,  384. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  investment  and 
battle  of,  667-669. 

Savage's  Station,  battle  of,  498. 

Savannah,  Ga.,  founded,  97;  capture 
of,  538. 

Schenectady,  massacre  of,  101. 

Schley,  Admiral  W.  S.,  portrait, 
685;  biographical  note,  p.  534  u.; 
at  Santiago,  p.  522  u.;  court  of 
inquiry,  686. 

Schofleld,  General,  (U.),  at  battle 
of  Franklin,  536. 

Schuyler,  Gen.  Philip,  portrait,  178 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  136  n.  \ ; 
checks  Burgoyue,  178;  superseded, 
180. 

Scotch-Irish,  in  the  West,  259. 

Scott,  Dred.  See  Dred  Scott  De 
cision. 

Scott,  Gen.  Winfield  S.,  portrait, 
385 ;  biographical  note,  p.  300  n. ; 
in  War  of  1812,  303;  Presidential 
aspirations,  379,  384;  in  Mexican 
War,  382-386;  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  404;  general  in  chief, 
462;  succeeded  by  McClellan,  467. 

Search,  Right  of,  292,  312,  472. 

Secession,  threats  of,  289,  313-315; 
advocated  in  Southern  conven 
tions,  434;  Ordinance  passed  by 
South  Carolina  and  other  states, 
440. 

Sedition  Law.  See  Alien  and  Sedi 
tion  Laws. 

Selma,  Ala.,  destruction  of,  549. 


INDEX. 


45 


Seminoles,  meaning  of  name,  p.  4  n. ; 
in  Florida,  324;  war  with,  370, 
p.  289  n. 

Semmes,  B.  S.,  (C.),  captain  of  the 
Alabama,  541. 

Senate,  United  States,  established, 
253. 

Separatists,  32. 

Serap/s,  Paul  Jones  defeats,  211. 

"Seven  Days'  Battles,"  497,  498; 
official  returns,  p.  394  n. 

Seven  Pines  (or  Fair  Oaks),  battle 
of,  495 ;  official  returns,  p.  392  n.  1. 

Seven  Years'  War,  118,  121. 

Sevier,  John,  Tennessee  pioneer,  200, 
203. 

Seward,  William  H.,  portrait,  396 
(p.  309) ;  biographical  note,  p.  309 
n. ;  opposes  compromise  of  1850, 
396;  his  doctrine  of  the  "higher 
law,"  420;  candidate  for  Presiden 
tial  nomination,  436;  optimism  on 
the  war,  446;  in  Lincoln's  Cabinet, 
451,  501;  on  election  of  1864,  543; 
attack  on,  552;  mildness  toward 
Confederate  leaders,  565 ;  purchases 
Alaska,  p.  502  n. 

Seymour,  Horatio,  portrait,  580; 
biographical  note,  p.  456  n.;  can 
didate  for  the  Presidency,  580. 

Shatter,  Gen.  William  R.,  portrait, 
667 ;  biographical  note,  p.  520  n. 

Shannon  and  Chesapeake,  battle  of, 
304,  p.  233  n.  1. 

Sharpsburg-  (or  Antietam),  battle 
of,  505 ;  official  returns,  p.  401  n.  1. 

Shays'  Rebellion,  243. 

Shenandoah,  Valley  of,  discovered 
by  Spotswood,  96;  importance  of, 
p.  72  n.  1 ;  in  the  Civil  War,  460, 
491,  493,  533,  550. 

Sheridan,  Gen.  P.  H.,  portrait,  550 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  438  n. ;  de 
feats  Early  in  Virginia,  533  (p.  426) , 
550. 

Sherman,  Gen.  W.  T.,  portrait,  521 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  413  n. ;  at 
Shiloh,  478;  at  Vicksburg,  517;  at 
Chattanooga,  521 ;  given  command 
in  the  West,  530 ;  Atlanta  campaign 
and  march  to  the  sea,  534-538; 


march  northward,  548;  receives 
surrender  of  Johnston,  551. 

Sherman  Law,  635;  repealed,  648. 

Shiloh  (or  Pittsburg  Landing),  bat 
tle  of,  478 ;  official  returns,  p.  378 
n.  1. 

Shirley,  William,  governor  of  Massa 
chusetts,  105. 

Sigel,  Gen.  Franz,  (IL),  biograph 
ical  note,  p.  369  n.  1;  at  Wilson's 
Creek,  470 ;  at  Pea  Ridge,  480 ;  de 
feated  by  Early,  533. 

Silver.     See  Currency. 

Sioux  (or  Dakota)  Indians,  3;  trouble 
with,  593. 

Six  Nations,  p.  3  n.  2;  aid  the 
Tories,  204;  destroyed  by  Sullivan, 
206,  207. 

Slavery,  introduced  in  America,  27; 
a  check  to  industry,  77;  in  the 
colonies,  88;  prohibited  by  the 
Ordinance  of  1787,  256;  political 
importance  of,  327,  331,  374,  407, 
411-414,  418-421;  in  Missouri,  328- 
330 ;  work  of  abolitionists,  359,  360 ; 
influence  on  territorial  extension, 
374 ;  Wilmot  Proviso,  388 ;  Lincoln's 
attitude  toward,  445,  501 ;  emanci 
pation,  508,  509. 

Slaves,  representation  of,  249;  num 
ber  in  1800,  257 ;  in  Civil  War,  454, 
470,  501,  508,  509. 

Slidell,  John,  Confederate  agent,  472. 

Smith,  Capt.  John,  English  ad 
venturer,  portrait,  24;  biograph 
ical  note,  p.  25  n ;  at  Jamestown, 
24,  25. 

Smith,  Joseph,  Mormon  leader,  426. 

Social  life,  in  the  colonies,  78,  85,  86, 
88. 

Soto,  Hernando  de,  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  portrait,  13  (p.  17) ;  dis 
covers  Tennessee  and  Mississippi 
rivers,  13. 

Soule",  Pierre,  408. 

South,  the,  and  the  Missouri  Contro 
versy,  328-331,  348;  desires  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  374;  in  the 
Mexican  War,  377,  387;  bitterness 
against  the  North,  391 ;  encourages 
attempts  to  secure  Cuba,  402;  and 


46 


INDEX. 


the  Kansas  Bill,  411;  growth  of 
secession  ideas,  434;  misunder 
standing  between  North  and  South, 
446 ;  population  in  1860,  447  ;  wealth 
of,  448;  industries  of,  455;  prepa 
ration  for  war,  465 ;  reconstruction 
of,  562-566;  withdrawal  of  troops 
from,  601;  industries  in,  617;  ne 
groes  in,  696,  705. 

South  Carolina,  settled,  72;  in  1700, 
77 ;  surrenders  charter,  92 ;  advo 
cates  state  sovereignty,  341 ;  nulli 
fication  in,  358;  secedes,  440;  re 
admitted  ,  574. 

South  Mountain,  battle  of,  505. 

Spain,  secures  Louisiana,  115;  cedes 
Florida  to  Great  Britain,  115; 
restores  Louisiana  to  France,  286 ; 
and  Cuba,  408,  594,  658-659;  war 
with,  658-670;  results  of  the  war 
with,  671-676. 

Spanish  discoveries,  in  America, 
5-13,  19,  20. 

Spanish  War.    See  Spain. 

Speaker  of  the  House,  importance 
of,  p.  197  n. 

Specie.     See  Currency. 

Specie  Circular,  366. 

Specie  payments,  resumption  of, 
605. 

Spoils  system,  introduced,  351;  ac 
credited  to  Van  Buren,  370. 

Spotswood,  Governor  Alexan 
der,  95 ;  crosses  the  Blue  Ridge,  96. 

Spottsylvania.  battles  about,  531; 
official  returns,  p.  424  n. 

"Squatter  Sovereignty,"  advo 
cated  by  Cass,  389;  by  Douglas, 
411;  and  the  Dred  Scott  Decision, 
420;  Douglas' s"Freeport  Doctrine," 
430;  opposed  by  Southern  Demo 
crats,  435. 

Stamp  Act,  125 ;  resisted  by  colonies, 
127;  repealed,  128. 

Standish,  Capt.  Miles,  portrait,  35 ; 
at  Plymouth,  35. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  portrait,  476; 
biographical  note,  p.  372  n.;  in 
Buchanan's  Cabinet,  441,  475;  be 
comes  Secretary  of  War,  475;  op 
posed  by  Johnson,  578 ;  resigns,  579. 


Stanwix,  Port,  siege  of,  182. 

Stark,  Gen.  John,  portrait,  179 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  137  n. ;  at  Ben- 
nington,  179.  v 

Star  of  the  West  episode,  442,  452. 

State  debts.    See  Debts. 

States' Rights  Doctrine.  See  State 
Sovereignty. 

State  Sovereignty,  theory  of,  in 
the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu 
tions,  279 ;  advocated  by  the  Hart 
ford  Convention,  315;  in  Georgia, 
339;  and  nullification,  355-358. 

Steamship  lines,  in  1852,  402. 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  portrait, 
445;  biographical  note,  p.  346  n.; 
pro-slavery  leader,  400;  opposes 
secession,  434;  explains  Southern 
standpoint,  445;  negotiates  for 
peace,  547. 

Steuben,  Baron  von,  portrait,  190; 
biographical  note,  p.  146  n. ;  joins 
American  army,  190. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  portrait,  571; 
biographical  note,  p.  451  n.;  his 
policy  of  reconstruction,  571. 

Stevenson,  Vice-President  Adlai 
E.,  643,  678. 

Stirling,  General,  at  battle  of  Long 
Island,  154,  155. 

Stone  River  (or  Murfreesborough), 
battle  of,  482. 

Stony  Point,  taken  by  Wayne,  198. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  portrait, 
423;  biographical  note,  p.  329  n. ; 
author  of  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin, 
422. 

Strikes,  602,  625,  638,  653,  688. 

Stuy  vesant,  Peter,  governor  of  New 
Netherlands,  portrait,  63 ;  biograph 
ical  note,  p.  51  n. ;  surrenders  to  the 
English,  64. 

Sub-Treasury  system,  established, 
369. 

Suffrage,  creates  disturbance  in 
Maryland,  39;  extension  of,  332. 

Sullivan,  Gen.  John,  portrait,  207 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  156  n. ;  at 
battle  of  Long  Island,  154,  155;  in 
command  of  Northern  forces,  167 ; 
at  the  Brandywine,  186;  at  Ger- 


INDEX. 


47 


mantown,  187;  at  Newport,  197; 
leads  expedition  against  the  Six 
Nations,  206,  207. 

Simmer,  Charles,  portrait,  415 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  322  n. ;  anti- 
slavery  orator,  400 ;  and  the  Kansas 
question,  415;  assault  on,  415;  bit 
terly  opposes  Grant,  p.  322  n. 

Sumner,  Gen.  Edwin  V.,  (IL),  at 
Fair  Oaks,  495 ;  at  Fredericksburg, 
506. 

Sumter,  Fort,  fall  of,  452. 

Sumter,  Gen.  Thomas,  harasses 
British  in  the  South,  214,  223. 

Supreme  Court,  powers  of,  253;  de 
cision  on  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
256  (p.  190) ;  in  Dred  Scott  Deci 
sion,  418-420;  in  Reconstruction 
cases,  584 ;  on  income  tax,  649. 

Surplus,  distribution  of,  364. 

Swedish  settlements,  in  Delaware, 
63. 

Tallmadge,  James,  proposes  amend 
ment  to  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
328. 

Tammany  Society,  beginning  of, 
332;  governs  New  York  City,  592. 

Taney,  Roger  B.,  portrait,  419;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  326  n. ;  removes 
deposits  from  the  Bank,  362;  ren 
ders  Dred  Scott  Decision,  418 ;  death 
of,  545. 

Tariff,  first  protective,  266;  of  W16, 
316;  of  1824,  332;  of  1828,  340;  of 
1830  and  1832,  357  ;  of  1833,  358  ;  of 
1862,  455;  of  1883,  615;  McKinley 
Tariff,  630;  Wilson  Bill,  649;  Ding- 
ley  Bill,  657. 

Tariff  of  Abominations.  See 
Tariff,  of  1828. 

Tarleton,  Col.  Banastre,  portrait, 
224;  biographical  note,  p.  168  n.; 
at  battle  of  the  Cowpens,  225. 

Taxation,  in  early  colonial  times,  59, 
87,  94,  95;  English  principle  of, 
122;  colonial  views  on,  123;  Gren- 
ville's  scheme,  125 ;  resisted  by  the 
colonists,  127-132 ;  on  tea,  133-135 ; 
under  the  Confederation,  242;  on 
banks,  457 ;  income  tax,  649. 


Taylor,  Gen.  Zachary,  portrait,  380; 
biographical  note,  p.  298  n. ;  in  the 
Mexican  War,  377,  379-383;  nom 
inated  for  the  Presidency,  389; 
attitude  toward  California,  388, 396 ; 
elected,  389 ;  death  of,  396. 

Tea,  tax  on,  133-135. 

Tecumseh,  302,  305. 

Telegraph,  spread  of,  402;  perfected 
by  Morse,  449. 

Temperance,  403,  p.  314  n.,  707. 

Tennessee,  settled,  200;  war  in,  202; 
admitted,  p.  192  n.;  secedes,  453; 
readmitted,  569. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act,  of  1820,  351; 
of  1867,  578;  repealed,  p.  455  n. 

Territorial  expansion,  desired  by 
slave  states,  374,  411.  See  Im 
perialism. 

Territories,  slavery  in,  411,  416, 
417-420,  430. 

Texas,  annexation  of,  374,  375 ;  boun 
dary  dispute  with  Mexico,  377 ;  and 
the  war  with  Mexico,  377-387; 
secedes,  440;  readmitted,  574. 

Thames  River,  battle  of,  305. 

Thirteenth  Amendment,  546,  p. 
435  n. ;  accepted  by  Southern 
states,  568. 

Thomas,  Gen.  George  H.,  (IL),  por 
trait,  518;  biographical  note,  p. 
412  n.;  at  Chickamauga,  518;  at 
Nashville,  536. 

Thompson,  Jacob,  442,  450. 

Ticonderoga,  Fort,  taken  by  the 
English,  115;  captured  by  Ethan 
Allen,  145;  retaken  by  the  British, 
178. 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  portrait,  599; 
biographical  note,  p.  471  n. ;  nomi 
nated  for  the  Presidency,  597. 

Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  299. 

Tobacco,  in  Virginia,  27;  in  Mary 
land,  40. 

Tories,  in  the  Revolutionary  War, 
160;  treatment  of,  after  the  Revolu 
tion,  236. 

Toscanelli's  map,  5  (p.  8). 

Town  meetings,  82. 

Townshend  Acts,  129 ;  partially  re- 
pealed,  133. 


48 


INDEX. 


Transportation  Bill,  136. 

Treasury,  Independent,  estab 
lished,  369. 

Treaty,  of  Greenville,  with  the  In 
dians,  270;  of  Utrecht,  102;  of 
Paris,  115,  235;  with  France,  194, 
280;  with  Spain,  258,  671 ;  of  Ghent, 
312;  Ashburton,  372;  of  annexation 
(Texas), 375;  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
387;  Clay  ton-Bui  wer,  401;  with 
Japan,  410;  of  Washington,  585; 
Hay-Pauncefote,  680. 

Trent  Affair,  472. 

Trenton,  battle  of,  170. 

Trist,  N.  P.,  385. 

Trusts,  623,  692,  706,  709. 

Tryon,  Tory  governor  of  New  York, 
160. 

Turner,  Nat,  leads  rebellion  in  Vir 
ginia,  359. 

Tweed,  William  Marcy,  Tammany 
leader,  592,  p.  46(5  n. 

Twelfth  Amendment,  281. 

Tyler,  John,  portrait,  373;  biographi 
cal  note,  p.  291  n.  2;  elected  Vice 
President,  371 ;  becomes  President, 
372;  incidents  of  his  administra 
tion,  372-376. 

Underground  Railway,  399. 

Underbill,  Capt.  John,  in  the  Pe- 
quot  War,  50. 

Union  Pacific  Railroad.  See  Rail 
roads. 

United  States  Bank.     See  Bank. 

Upshur,  A.  P.,  p.  291  n.  1. 

Utah,  settled  by  Mormons,  426; 
trouble  in,  426,  427. 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  Spanish  explorer, 
13. 

Valcour's  Island,  battle  of,  161. 

Vallandigham,  Clement  L.,  ar 
rested  for  treason,  -528. 

Valley  Forge,  Washington's  winter 
at,  188-193. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  portrait,  352; 
biographical  note,  p.  271  n. ;  leader 
of  "Albany  Regency,"  342;  Secre 
tary  of  State,  352;  elected  Presi 


dent,  367;  his  administration,  368- 
370 ;  introduces  Independent  Treas 
ury  system,  369;  candidate  of 
Liberty  and  Free  Soil  parties, 
389. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  the  Younger, 
portrait,  46;  biographical  note, 
p.  42  n. 

Van  Rensselaer,  General,  defeated 
at  Queenstown  Heights,  303. 

Venezuelan  dispute,  651. 

Vera  Cruz,  battle  of,  382. 

Vermont,  becomes  a  separate  state, 
93,  260. 

Verrazano,  Giovanni  da,  Italian 
explorer,  14. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo  (Latin  form, 
Americus  Vespucius),  Italian  ex 
plorer,  portrait,  10;  biographical 
note,  p.  13  n. ;  publishes  account 
of  his  voyages,  10;  his  name  given 
to  the  "  New  World,"  10. 

Veto  power,  253. 

Vicksburg  campaign,  514-517 ;  offi 
cial  returns,  p.  410  n.  2. 

Vincennes,  Ind.,  taken  by  Clark, 
209. 

Vinland,  4  (p.  6). 

Virginia,  named  by  Raleigh,  18;  set 
tled,  23;  slavery  introduced,  27; 
its  governors,  27,  28;  becomes  a 
royal  province,  28;  Burgesses,  28, 
45,  72,  95 ;  under  Berkeley,  42-45 ; 
in  1700,  77 ;  under  Governor  Spots- 
wood,  95,  96;  in  1800,260;  secedes, 
453;  readmitted,  574;  state  debt 
agitation  in,  617. 

Virginia  Company,  chartered,  21; 
the  sub-companies,  22;  charters 
annulled,  20;  records  preserved, 
26,  p.  28  n. 

Virginia  Resolutions,  279. 

Virginius  Affair,  594. 

Voting,  by  ballot,  introduced  in  Mas 
sachusetts,  46;  Australian  ballot 
introduced,  621. 

Waldseemuller,      Martin,      gives 

America  its  name,   10. 
Walker,    Robert    J.,    governor   of 

Kansas,  424. 


INDEX. 


49 


Walker,  William,  filibuster,  409. 

Wallace,  Gen.  Lew,  (U.),  at  Mo- 
nocacy,  533. 

Warner,  Gen.  Seth,  at  Ticonderoga, 
145;  at  Bennington,  179. 

War  of  1812,  beginnings  of,  299,  300; 
declared,  301;  naval  exploits  in, 
304,  305 ;  developed  national  spirit, 
347. 

Warren,  Gen.  Joseph,  portrait,  147 ; 
biographical  note,  p.  109  n.;  killed 
at  Bunker  Hill,  147. 

Washington,  D.C.,  capital  of  the 
United  States,  p.  196  n.,  266;  cap 
ture  and  burning  of,  310;  defence 
of,  in  the  Civil  War,  462. 

Washington,  Fort,  capture  of,  158. 

Washington,  George,  portrait, 
frontispiece,  p.  134;  biographical 
note,  p.  107  n. ;  carries  message  to 
the  French,  106,  107;  at  Fort  Ne 
cessity,  109;  aide  to  General  Brad- 
dock,  111 ;  appointed  commander 
in  chief,  144;  takes  command  of 
American  army,  148;  his  difficul 
ties,  148;  besieges  Boston,  149;  in 
New  York,  153-158;  in  New  Jer 
sey,  166-173;  at  the  Brandy  wine, 
186 ;  at  Germantown,  187 ;  at  Valley 
Forge,  189-193 ;  sends  expedition  to 
the  Northwest,  204;  his  plans 
against  Cornwallis,  230, 231 ;  elected 
first  President,  255;  as  a  states 
man,  265;  his  Cabinet,  266;  leans 
to  Federalism,  267;  retirement, 
274. 

Washington  monument,  611. 

Watling's  Island,  probable  landing 
place  of  Columbus,  p.  9  n. 

Wayne,  Gen.  Anthony,  portrait, 
199 ;  biographical  note,  p.  152  n. ; 
takes  Stony  Point,  198;  subdues 
the  Indians  in  the  Northwest, 
270. 

Webster,  Daniel,  portrait,  354 ;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  275  n.  1 ;  opposes 
tariff  of  1816,  316 ;  sustains  Adams, 
339;  debate  with  Hayne,  355,  356; 
his  theory  of  the  Constitution,  356; 
leader  of  Whig  party,  368;  in 
Tyler's  Cabinet,  372;  secures  Ash- 


burton  treaty,  372;  opposes  Mexi 
can  War,  379 ;  supports  Compromise 
of  1850,  395 ;  his  "  Seventh  of  March 
speech,"  395;  Secretary  of  State 
for  Fillmore,  396;  seeks  nomina 
tion  for  Presidency,  404;  death, 
404. 

West,  settlement  of,  104, 106,  200, 259, 
346 ;  development,  343,  344,  346-349 ; 
transportation  facilities  increase 
settlement,  346,  581. 

Western  lands,  241.  See  Public 
Lauds. 

West  Indies,  discovered  by  Colum 
bus,  7;  trade  with,  lost  by  J.  Q. 
Adams,  336;  recovered  by  Jack 
son,  367. 

West  Virginia,  admitted,  463. 

Weyler,  Captain-General,  659. 

Wheeler,  Vice-President  William 
A.,  597. 

Whig  Party,  rise  of,  p.  283  n.,  p. 
284  n.  1 ;  led  by  Clay  and  Webster, 
368 ;  principles  of,  368 ;  in  1840,  371 ; 
and  Tyler,  372,  373;  in  1844,  375; 
elects  Taylor,  389;  divides  on  the 
slavery  question,  404;  decline  of, 
406. 

Whiskey  Rebellion,  273. 

Whitefield,  George,  103. 

White  Plains,  battle  of,  157. 

Whitney,  Eli,  portrait,  297;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  224  n. 

Whittier,  John  G.,  350. 

Wilderness  campaign,  530-532; 
official  returns,  p.  424  n. 

Wilkinson,  Gen.  James,  289,  306. 

Williams,  Roger,  driven  from 
Salem,  48;  founds  Providence 
Plantation,  48;  his  writings,  84. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  388. 

Wilson,  Gen.  J.  H.,  549,  565. 

Wilson,  William  L.,  649. 

Wilson's  Creek,  battle  of,  470. 

Wilson  Tariff  Law,  649. 

Winslow,  Capt.  John  A.,  (U.),  de 
feats  the  Alabama,  541. 

Winthrop,  John,  portrait,  38;  bio 
graphical  note,  p.  36  n. ;  first 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  38; 
writings,  84. 


50 


INDEX. 


Wirt,    William,    Attorney-general, 

320. 

Witchcraft  delusion,  83. 
Wolfe,    Gen.  James,  portrait,  114 

(p.  85) ;    biographical  note,  p.  84 

n.  2;   captures  Quebec,   114. 
Writs  of  Assistance,  129. 
Writs  of  quo  warranto,  68,  p.  56  n. 

1,92. 
Wyatt,  Sir  Francis,  royal  governor 

of  Virginia,  27,  42. 
Wyoming,  admitted,  629. 
Wyoming  Valley  massacre,  205. 


X.  Y.  Z.  affair,  276. 

Yancey,  William  L.,  pro-slavery 
leader,  400;  opposes  Douglas, 
435;  leads  Southern  Democrats, 
435. 

Yorktown,  surrender  of  Cornwallis 
at,  233. 

Yorktown  campaign,  231 ;  in  the 
Civil  War,  492. 

Young,  Brigham,  Mormon  leader, 
426. 


14  DAY  USE 

c^OMWHIC 
LOAN  DEFT. 


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